Building A Fire

Though Toronto winters are mild and short in this millennium, heat inside homes is needed for the bouts of sub-zero weather that may be harmful to children and the elderly, especially in homes poorly insulated as they were built in the 1900’s. As well, heating will provide the ability to cook food, sterilize materials, can foods for preservation, and purify drinking water.

3:a:i) SAFETY & FIRE PREVENTION

When burning a fire in a woodstove, keep some basic principles in mind:

~ A stove must have a 3-foot barrier of space between it and any objects or materials that can heat up and potentially ignite (curtains, clothing, paintings, furniture, firewood, kindling, etc).

~ Burn fires hot and clean to prevent a buildup of soot in the stove pipe, allowing plenty of oxygen into the vent.

~ Do not burn pine wood or other woods from coniferous trees as these are sappy. Burn wood that has been air-dried for half a year or more, and that is not wet or damp from rain or snow.

~ Do not burn wood foraged from collapsed buildings or scrap yards as they may have been treated with chemicals. Only use these woods for burning outdoors and for purposes such as boiling water for washing or making soap.

~ Inspect and clean the stove pipe regularly, such as monthly. Brush the pipe with a metal brush on a long extension rod along the entire length of the pipe.

3:a:ii) HOW TO START A FIRE

STEP 1: Gather a few handfuls of tinder. Tinder is any kind of fine material that can easily catch fire, including paper, dry pine needles, fine dry grasses, birch bark, dried moss, mouse nests, cotton balls, and wood shavings.

STEP 2: Gather half a bucket full of kindling. Kindling must catch fire within a few seconds from the burning tinder, but only needs to burn for a few minutes. Use any dry twigs, including dry small pine branches with needles still attached.

STEP 3: Collect half a bucket full of small dry sticks, up to 2 inches thick.

STEP 4: Collect a bucket full of wood pieces 2 to 12 inches thick.

STEP 5: Build a small pile of tinder and light it with a match in several places. Layer a bit of kindling gentry on top.

STEP 6: As the kindling catches fire, pile on more kindling and gradually add larger pieces of wood. Forming a “teepee” or pyramid shape with the larger kindling and wood allows air to circulate and feed the fire.

3:a:iii) LIGHTING MATERIALS

Ideally, matches are the best resource. To waterproof matches, dip individually into melted wax and allow to dry. Store in a waterproof container.

If matches are unavailable, flints are the next best option. Flints can be readily found in various institutions, such as in high school and college chemistry labs.

If neither matches nor flints are available, you can always start a fire with a magnifying glass, concave mirror or even a pair of eyeglasses. A bright sun is essential. Hold the glass towards over the tinder, with the point of light (focal point) on the surface. Slowly the point will heat up, smolder, then turn into a small flame.

3:a:iv) PAPER BRICKS FOR FIREWOOD

With the massive shortage of hardwood in the city, and in efforts to conserve precious wood materials, paper bricks make an adequate substitute as fuel for fire in woodstoves.

STEP 1: Collect scrap newspapers and other combustible materials, including sawdust, twigs, cardboard, scrap paper, etc.

STEP 2: Tear or break into smaller pieces.

STEP 3: Soak in greywater or unpurified rainwater for at least 24 hours or up to 1 week.

STEP 4: Strain and place handfuls of the scrap mixture into a brick press*, piling full and high, and press firmly to remove all liquid. Collect extracted water as greywater.

STEP 5: Place bricks to dry in full sun for 1 month or longer, to ensure the bricks are thoroughly dried. For this reason it’s best to press paper bricks early in the summer and store in a dry place until needed in the fall and winter.

*Alternately, follow steps 1 to 3 and then simply use hands to press scrap mixture into balls. This is convenient in the event that a brick press is not accessible, and also reduces drying time, though the paper balls will burn much more quickly.

Read the next section, Stoves & Cookers...

Stoves & Cookers

3:b:i) BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEAT & LIGHT CONSERVATION

~ Use outdoor kitchens or cooking set-ups in warmer weather, opting for solar cooking over wood-burning methods, and use indoor stoves for cooking to double as space heaters in cold weather.

~ Cook large quantities to feed many people to best make use of fuel and human energy.

~ When needing to heat or boil any water that is not for consumption (as in double-boiling to melt wax for candle making), use grey (recycled) water.

3:b:ii) BUILDING WOODSTOVES

A small wood stove can be made from a clean and dry oil drum – such as a 15-galon, closed-head heavy gauge grease drum.

STEP 1: Cut a small horizontal rectangular opening near the bottom of the drum for ash removal, and a square opening above that in the center of the drum for loading the wood.

STEP 2: Cut doors from sheet metal to overlap the two openings by 1/2” all around.

STEP 3: Bolt the doors to the drum, and make door catches for both doors from 4” corner braces. Cut and notch with a hacksaw and bend the braces to fit the curve of the drum. Bolt the door catches to the drum.

STEP 4: Cut draft regulators out of sheet metal: drill holes into them and through the doors in the pattern shown in the illustration, then bolt in place.

3:b:iii) BUILDING A HIGH-EFFICIENCY COOK STOVE


The principles behind a high-efficiency stove are to produce the least amount of smoke (air pollution), use the least amount of fuel (wood), and produce the most amount of heat. A “rocket elbow” stove uses materials easily found and is constructed to be a one-pot cooker. A fuel-saver, this stove uses twigs for burning, and incorporates a “skirt” around the pot which increases efficiency by minimizing heat loss.

3:b:iv) COOKING ON AN OPEN FIRE


The three-stone method is the most efficient if cooking outdoors and no high-efficiency stove is available.

STEP 1: Set up three large stones or cinder blocks on open ground in a triangle.

STEP 2: In the center of the triangle, arrange crumpled papers and kindling. Light the fire, then place a metal rack on top of the cinder blocks.

STEP 3: Begin to feed long sticks and twigs in through the gaps between the cinder blocks, along the ground. These will feed the fire by only burning at the ends.

STEP 4: Place your pot of food or water on the rack to heat. Adjust the amount of fire and heat by pulling sticks back or adding more sticks.

3:2: v) COOKING WITH SUNLIGHT

A solar cooker requires no fuel to cook food other than the sun from a bright sunny day. Cooking food this way takes longer than using fire, up to twice as long, but can cook meats, stews, bread and more. Below is a guide to making a simple solar cooker for one family, as well as a guide for building a spit-centered one for cooking large pieces of meat.

WINDSHIELD SHADE SOLAR FUNNEL COOKER

STEP 1: Using a flexible silver reflective windshield shade, fasten the bottom left and bottom right edges together using staples or sewing with a needle and thread, or taping together with silver duct tape. This will create a funnel shape.

STEP 2: Set down a bucket or plastic waste basket on a surface (ground, table) and place the joined edge of the funnel cooker down across the top. Place a grill or cake rack down in the centre of the funnel (this will press down on the flexible funnel).

STEP 3: Place your food ingredients in a black pot with a lid. Place this pot inside a clear plastic bag and tie closed. Rest the pot on the rack and angle the solar oven to directly face the sun for maximum reflection. If windy, set a stick across the wide part of the funnel to hold it open.

ALUMINUM SPIT SOLAR COOKER

This solar cooker is a more permanent version of the windshield design as it uses durable materials, and is designed to be more effective than the windshield cooker because of its smooth curving metal for a hotter focal point. However the main design for this is for skewering food like meats and vegetables. To cook pots of food or water, rig a metal grate to act as a shelf, making sure it places the pot in the focal point of the sun’s rays and can swivel to counteract the rotation of the reflector.

STEP 1: Using 1”-thick wood (such as pine or plywood), mark and cut out 2 half-circles measuring 13” wide and 4” high, with a 7 1/4” radius arc. Clamp the 2 pieces together and plane and sand the edges to shape (clamping will make both sides identical).

STEP 2: Bend a 16” x 18” rectangular square of sheet aluminum to fit the curve of the side pieces. Work carefully to avoid creasing or scratching the sheet. Make sure the shiny side of the aluminum is on the inner side of the curve.

STEP 3: Drill a hole in the centre of the wood pieces. Notch out 1/4” square divets in the centre of the straight edge of the semi-circles, the same width as the spit to be used. Unclamp.

STEP 4: Use two dozen 1/2” aluminum screws to tack the aluminum to the curved edge of the wood pieces. This completes the solar cooker section.

STEP 5: To make the base, take two 3”x6” planks of wood 1” thick, clamp together and drill a hole at the centre near the top. Unclamp.

STEP 6: Screw the two planks of wood upright to a baseboard large enough to fit these, making sure the distance between the boards is equal to the width of the solar cooker (18”).

STEP 7: Using two 2 1/2” bolts and wing (butterfly) nuts, fasten the solar cooker to the upright boards, using washers between the bolt head and washer and wood surfaces.

STEP 8: For a spit, use a long rotisserie skewer or a 1/4”-square steel rod filed to a point at one end. Clean and oil the spit, skewer a piece of meat, wrap tightly in aluminum foil (dull side out) and place the spit in the notched divets of the solar cooker. Adjust the cooker to point directly to the sun, maintaining this orientation by tilting the reflector and position of the cooker from time to time.

Read the next section, Light Sources...

Light Sources

Burning candles and oil-burning lamps are the most easily refueled light sources. To maximize the lifespan of each, use sparingly and reserve tasks that require light for daytime when you would not require a light source other than the sun. Below are instructions for making candles and lanterns. Always reserve wax drippings for making new candles.

3:c:i) MAKING CANDLES

The best materials for making candles a combination of beeswax, tallow, alum and saltpeter. Beeswax is a hard substance and smells pleasant, but is available in smaller quantities than tallow, which is rendered animal fat, such as sheep fat. The alum and saltpeter are additives that harden the candles and make them burn cleaner. The ideal ratio of all four materials is, by weight: 20% beeswax, 40% tallow, 20% alum, 20% saltpeter. If your availability of beeswax and tallow varies, you can use any proportion of beeswax you like, but keep the proportion of tallow to alum to saltpeter at 50% to 25% to 25% respectively. Wicks should always be heavy cotton, prepared adequately and be proportionately sized for the diameter of the candle.

MAKING MOLDED CANDLES

Molded candles are efficient to make compared to dipped candles as the molded variety uses all the candles that is melted, therefore none is wasted, and it is also quick to make.

STEP 1: Collect, clean and dry any common containers such as milk cartons, jars and cans. Coat the interior of each mold with oil or grease to prevent sticking. (Waxed containers do not require coating.)

STEP 2: Tie one end of a wick to a metal washer and the other end to the centre of a stick. Place the washer end at the bottom of the container, and the stick across the top. Adjust the top tie so the wick is taut.

STEP 3: Place a pot half-filled with recycled water on a fire. Dent one side of an empty can to form a spout and place it inside the pot of water, creating a double-boiler. Add beeswax and tallow to the empty can. When materials are melted, add alum and saltpeter. Stir until all ingredients are melted and combined. If a thermometer is available, check temperature of melted substance and remove from heat when temperature reaches 190oF for metal molds, and 130oF for cardboard, plastic or glass molds.

STEP 4: Pour molten wax mixture into your prepared greased containers with wicks in place. Let cool for a few days, then remove candles from the molds. Cardboard molds can be peeled off. Allow candles to harden in a cold or cool place for 1 week before burning.

MAKING WICKS
Wicks must be made of a heavy cotton yarn or rag prepared the following way to prevent it from burning too quickly. Soak cotton for 12 hours in a mixture of 1 tablespoon of salt plus 2 tablespoons of boric acid in a cup of water. You can also use a solution of turpentine, lime water and vinegar. Dry the cotton and braid three strands together to form the wicks. If using rag strips, twist them up while braiding to keep them tight and compact. Use a thicker wick or multiple wicks for candles with large diameters.

3:c:ii) MAKING OIL LAMPS

Another renewable light source is an oil lamp. You can use any seed, nut or vegetable oil, best when combined with tallow. The simplest lamps can be made from a shallow container like a small bowl or gravy boat, with the wick sitting in the oil and the tip resting on the edge or spout. For a larger lamp, use one of the following options:

1) Use a clean jar with a lid. Punch a small hole in the lid, thread the wick through the hole (you can use a thread or thin wire to hook the wick, then thread the wire through the hole to pull the wick in through behind it). Fill the jar with oil, replace the lid and allow the wick to saturate with oil before lighting.

2) Use a glass bottle with a screw cap. Proceed as for the jar lamp.

Do not allow the oil to drop more than 6 inches from the flame or the wick will dry out at the tip and burn off.

Read the next section, Home Conversions...