Food production is one of the most important tasks for our survival as a city. The methods in this guide for growing crops are bio-intensive and organic, as we have no petroleum-based fertilizers or pesticides, and have limited land to work on. All available green spaces need to be converted into farm land, massive composting systems established, and irrigation systems set up. To extend the growing season, greenhouses and sprouting beds will be built, and a variety of energy-efficient food preservation methods implemented.
1:a,i) RATIONING
To calculate food requirements for 1 year, use the chart below for each community, using adult males as the base measurement per individual:
FORMULA:
Number of Individuals (X) Food Factor (=) Equivalent Adult Males
adult males x 1.0
adult females x 0.85
teenage males x 1.4
teenage females x 0.95
male children (7 to 11) x 0.95
female children (7 to 11) x 0.75
young children (4 to 6) x 0.6
infants (1 to 3) x 0.4
To calculate, multiply the number of individuals with the food factor to achieve a figure for an adult male equivalent, then add all equivalent adults in the community for the food requirements per year (see food quantities below). For example, in a community of 10 men, 10 women, 5 boys, 5 girls and 5 young children, the food requirement for 1 year would be equivalent to 30 adult males.
Food quantities for 1 adult male for 1 year:
GRAINS: 325 lbs (variety: oats, corn, rice, barley, etc)
LEGUMES: 80 lbs (dry) (variety: beans, peas, lentils, seeds, etc)
EGGS & DAIRY: 50 lbs (preserved as cheese)
MEAT: 20 lbs (preserved as dried meat, canned, etc)
FRUITS & VEGETABLES: 20 lbs (dry) (dehydrated variety)
SWEETENERS: 60 lbs (honey, syrups, etc)
FATS: 40 lbs (butter, lard, vegetable oils)
1:a,ii) DAILY MINIMUM CALORIC INTAKE
Another way to determine individuals’Caloric needs are determined by a number of factors including present weight, height, age, physical activity, health, body-fat percentage and metabolism. This rough guideline is for active individuals of average height and weight. Elderly or immobile individuals require much fewer calories, and in cases of the sick and injured food intake should be limited and of high nutritional value and easy digestibility.
Adult Males: 2000
Adult Females: 1700
Teenage Males: 2800
Teenage Females: 1900
Male Children: 1900
Female Children: 1500
Young Children: 1200
Infants: 800
1:a,iii) NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOODS
WHOLE DRY GRAINS (100 g)
Barley: 350cals, high source of protein, fiber, potassium, Vit A, zinc, iron, calcium
Cornmeal: 365cals, high source of Vit A, carbohydrates
Oats: 400cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrates
Rye: 380cals, high source of fiber
Wheat: 340cals, 17g protein, high source of fiber, zinc, potassium, carbohydrates
VEGETABLES (100g)
Beets: 45cals, high source of potassium, folate
Beet greens: 30cals, high source of Vit A, potassium, iron, calcium
Broccoli: 30cals, high source of Vits A & C, calcium, phytonutrients
Brussels sprouts: 40cals, high in fiber, potassium, calcium Vits A & C, phytonutrients
White cabbage: 20cals, source of fiber, phytonutrients
Chinese cabbage: 15cals, high source of calcium, potassium, Vits A & C
Chives: 30cals, high source of Vit A
Carrots: 45cals, high source of potassium, phytonutrients, very high source of Vit A
Cauliflower: 25cals, high source of fiber, potassium, Vit C, phytonutrients
Collards: 25cals, high source of Vit A
Coriander: 20cals, high source of calcium, potassium, very high source of Vit A
Corn: 80cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrates
Pickled cucumber: 20cals, source of Vit A
Eggplant: 30cals, high source of fiber
Fiddleheads: 20cals
Garlic: 130cals, high source of calcium, antioxidants, phytonutrients
Ginger root: 100cals, high source of antioxidants
Kale: 30cals, high source of fiber, calcium, very high source of Vit A, phytonutrients
Lettuce: 20cals, high source of calcium, Vit A
Onion: 35cals
Parsley: 30cals, high source of calcium, potassium, Vit C, very high source of Vit A, folate, antioxidant, phytonutrients
Parsnips: 80cals, high source of Vit C, potassium, carbohydrates
Peas: 85cals, high source of fiber, potassium, Vit A
Green pepper: 25cals, high source of potassium, Vits A & C
Red pepper: 25cals, high source of potassium, Vit C, very high source of Vit A
White potato: 110cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, potassium, Vit C
Sweet potato: 100cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, potassium, Vit C, extremely high source of Vit A, phytonutrients
Spinach: 20cals, high source of Potassium, Vitamin A, folate, riboflavin, phytonutrients
Summer squashes: 20cals, high source of potassium, fiber
Winter squashes: 40cals, high source of potassium, phytonutrients, very high source of Vit A
Tomato: 20cals, high source of potassium, Vits A & C, phytonutrients
Turnips: 20cals, high source of fiber,
Turnip greens: 20cals, high source of fiber, very high source of calcium, folate, Vits A & C
Zucchini: 15cals, source of fiber, Vit A
FRUITS (100g)
Apples: 60cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrate
Apricots: 50cals, high source of fiber, calcium, potassium, very high source of Vit A
Blackberries: 55cals, high source of fiber, calcium, potassium, Vit C
Blueberries: 55cals, high source of fiber, Vit C, antioxidants, phytonutrients
Cherries: 75cals, high source of fiber, Vit A,
Peaches: 40cals, high source of Vit A
Pears: 60cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrates, potassium
Plums: 55cals, high source of Vit A
Raspberries: 50cals, high source of folate, Vit C, riboflavin
Rhubarb: 20cals, high source of fiber, calcium, potassium, antioxidants
Strawberries: 25cals, very high source of Vit C
Watermelon: 30cals, high in phytonutrients
DAIRY & EGGS (250mL)
Buttermilk: 105cals, high in sodium, potassium, very high in calcium
Human breast milk: 180cals, high in fat, cholesterol, Vits A & C, antibodies
Soymilk: 85cals, high in potassium
Yogurt (whole goat’s or sheep’s milk): 180cals, high in fat, cholesterol, Vit A, very high in calcium
Cottage cheese: 240cals, high source of protein, sodium, potassium
Goat cheese: 260cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, calcium, very high source of Vit A
Medium cheese: 350cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, very high source of calcium, Vit A
Hard cheese: 485cals, high source of protein, fat, sodium, cholesterol, very high source of calcium, Vit A
Sour cream: 370cals, high source of fat, potassium, calcium, cholesterol, very high source of Vit A
Eggs (each): 80cals, source of protein, cholesterol, Vit A
LAKE FISH (100g)
Catfish: 105cals, high source of protein, potassium
Trout: 190cals, source of protein, potassium
Whitefish: 175cals, source of protein, cholesterol, potassium, Vit A, niacin
MEATS (100g)
Lamb: 220cals, high source of protein, cholesterol, iron, zinc, potassium, folate, niacin
Pork: 300cals, high source of fat, protein, cholesterol, niacin
Rabbit: 205cals, high source of protein, potassium, niacin
Organ meats (chicken): 155cals, high source of potassium, cholesterol, very high source of Vit A
POULTRY (100g)
Chicken: 170cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, sodium, potassium, Vit A, niacin
Duck: 200cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, niacin
Goose: 240cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, potassium
Turkey: 185cals, high source of protein, cholesterol, potassium
LEGUMES (250mL)
Black beans: 240cals, high source of protein, carbohydrate, fiber, very high source of potassium, folate, phytonutrients
Kidney beans: 130cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, potassium, phytonutrients
Soy beans: 172cals, high source of protein, calcium, iron, potassium Vit A, phytonutrients
Lentils: 120cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, iron, protein, potassium, phytonutrients, very high source of folate, niacin
Chick peas: 120cals, high source of protein, carbohydrate, fiber, calcium, potassium, Vit A, folate
Split peas: 120cals, high source of protein, carbohydrate, potassium, folate, niacin
NUTS & SEEDS (100g)
Almonds: 585cals, source of protein, carbohydrate, fat, sodium, potassium, high source of calcium
Pecans: 670cals, source of carbohydrate, fat, Vit A
Pine nuts: 520cals, high source of protein, fiber, fat, iron, potassium, folate, niacin
Walnuts: 640cals, high source of fat, calcium, potassium, Vit A
Flax seeds: 490cals, high source of fiber, calcium, folate, phytonutrients
Pumpkin seeds: 520cals, high source of fiber, fat, calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, very high source of Vit A, folate, niacin
Sesame seeds: 580cals, high source of fat, niacin, very high source of calcium, folate, potassium
Sunflower seeds: 575cals, high source of fat, folate, niacin, fiber
FATS (250mL)
Butter: 1719cals, high source of fat, cholesterol, Vit A
Lard: 1954cals, high source of fat, cholesterol
Canola oil: 2035cals, high source of fat
Corn oil: 2040cals, high source of fat
Sunflower oil: 2035cals, high source of fat
SUGARS & SYRUPS (250mL)
Honey: 1085cals, high source of energy
Corn syrup: 965cals, high source of energy, sodium
Maple syrup: 865cals, high source of energy, potassium
1:a,iv) NATIVE CROPS & LIVESTOCK
As well as detailing the caloric value, the previous section lists the various foods appropriate for production in Toronto. For example, oranges are not included in the list as they can only be grown in warmer climates south of the border so far. However, with the construction of greenhouses, it would be possible to grow tropical and hot-climate fruits such as citrus, bananas, avocadoes and figs, and is certainly worth the attempt if seeds of such plants are found. Warm-climate fruits like the peach and almond tree historically grew best in areas like California and Italy, but because of the large water mass of Lake Ontario, plus the longer, hotter summers here since the beginning of the millennium, it is now suitable to grow and harvest here.
Cows are omitted from the list due to the mass-extermination of all beef and dairy cow breeds in the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, aka mad cow disease) epidemic in 2009. As well, this cattle production requires more caloric input than is produced for human consumption and as such is not a sustainable food source.
Read the next section, Urban Farming Spaces...
Showing posts with label Chapter 1: Food Production. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Chapter 1: Food Production. Show all posts
Urban Farming Spaces
With no reliable transportation available to haul produce and food from the countryside into the city, all useable growing spaces need to be converted into food-producing gardens at a large scale. This includes space for irrigation systems, seedling production, and composting systems. The methods that follow focus on high-yield biointensive farming methods
1:b,i) CONVERTING PUBLIC SPACES INTO TILLABLE LAND
Large areas of grassy lawns are ideal sites for farming, including public parks and some corporate and government buildings that are fronted by wide lawns. Some of these areas should be reserved for grazing by livestock if they are adjacent to small buildings that can be converted into barns and coops (see 1:7). The rest will require thorough tilling to break up the grasses and expose fertile soil for planting crops.
CONVERTING LAWN SPACES
One method of removing the grass from lawns to have useable growing soil is to physically remove all the grass with spades and shovels, and composting all the grass. This is a labourious method which yields instant results and provides a massive starter for compost if there is a shortage of it. Using a flat-edged shovel, cut the sod into 1-foot squares or larger, then pull up the top layer of grass with a shovel or spade . Transfer to the compost system. This can be done at any time of the growing year, preferably in the spring.
Another method is sod conversion, which decays the grass converting it into soil. This method requires many months in order for the sod to break down, and so is best done in the fall to have soil ready for the following spring. Cover the entire area of lawn with a biodegradable material like newspaper, to block out the sun. Add a 6-inch layer of compost or soil on top of the newspaper, watering on top of newspaper and compost/soil layers.
A third method of composting lawn is by creating turf loam. In a soil pit, line the bottom with one layer of lawn grass-side-up, and top that with a layer of lawn grass-side down, so the grass surfaces face each other. Repeat this with one more layer, then cover with a top layer of soil (saved from digging the pit). Allow to decompose for several summer months or until preparing seedling flats the following spring (see 1:3).
1:b,ii) MAP OF LOCATIONS IN TORONTO
Below is a map of lawn spaces in Toronto that are at various stages of being converted into farmland.
High Park (Bloor St. & Parkside Ave.)
Trinity Bellwoods Park (Dundas St. W. & Ossington Ave.)
Earlscourt Park (St. Clair Ave. W. & Lansdowne Ave.)
Sir Winston Churchill Park (Spadina Rd. & St. Clair Ave. W.)
Queens Park (University Ave. & College Ave.)
Christie Pits (Bloor St. & Christie Ave.)
Allan Gardens (Gerrard St. E. & Jarvis)
Riverdale Park West (Riverdale Farm) (Carlton & Bayview)
Riverdale Park East (Broadview & Danforth)
Don Valley Brick Works (Bayview Ave)
Withrow Park (Pape & Danforth)
Woodbine Park (Queen St. East & Kingston Rd.)
Taylor Creek Park (Woodbine Ave & O’Connor Dr)
Lower Don Parklands
E. T. Seton Park
Sunnybrook Park
Ashridges Bay Park
Tommy Thomson Park
Toronto Island
1:b,iii) WATER SOURCES
Although crops will grow with just the water provided by rain, it will yield much smaller quantities and sizes of produce. Irrigation is necessary in this climate, and outlined below are sources of water, how to collect and transport water, plus irrigation systems.
EXISTING WATER SOURCES
Pollution is the main factor concerning water sources in the city, but unfortunately this problem is widespread. The water available will need to be used for irrigation regardless, but it will affect the quality of the produce and in any case should not be used for drinking or cooking without treatment (see 1:2:iv).
PONDS
Grenadier Pond (High Park) – adjacent to parkland
Ontario Science Center – adjacent to parkland
RIVERS & CREEKS
All downtown tributaries were buried over a century ago, leaving only the Don River at the east edge (much too polluted to use for crop watering), the Humber River at the west end (both too far and too marshy for irrigation), and Balfour Creek at Yonge and St. Clair (almost dried up).
1:b,iv) IRRIGATION
In cases where farmland has no access to water bodies, rain can still be a main source of water, but collected to be used in an irrigation system. This is rainwater harvesting, a simple technology that greatly suits this city’s current situation, for farming as well as daily consumption.
In the case of High Park, there is a water source directly connected to the farmland. In cases such as this, irrigation systems can come from the water source using a conveyor system to carry water up from the water source to a holding tank. The tank must be elevated higher than the highest spot on the field, as gravity and water pressure will propel water through the water hose. Connect the hose to a tap at the bottom of the tank.
Alternately, use the tap to fill buckets or other containers to carry water to fields that are far from water sources. See section 2 for methods of harvesting rainwater.
For passive irrigation based on water pressure, install a drip system of interconnected hoses (preferably between 1/8” and 1/2” diameter) with holes punched in even increments to let water leak onto fields directly at plant bases.
1:b,v) DOMESTIC & NEIGHBOURHOOD FARMING
Large public spaces will provide the majority of produce and pasture land needed for the citizens of Toronto. To maximize production of foods and herbs for consumption as well as medicinal purposes, it is best to convert unused outdoor spaces in homes, buildings and neighbourhoods, into productive areas. Domestic yards of grass or soil are obvious sites for growing a garden. For non-soil areas, plants will have to be container gardened.
ROOFTOPS
All flat, accessible rooftops can be converted into garden spaces. However, due to the weight of soil and water, not all rooftops have the adequate load-bearing support right on the roof. They will, however, be sturdy enough at the perimeter that large metal grates or planks of wood can rest on. The containers will have to be large enough to grow plenty of food, and also to not fall over strong winds common to elevated areas.
DECKS, PATIOS & BALCONIES
These areas have sturdy concrete or wood floors and high barriers are built for extra weight, therefore can house large gardens in constructed boxes or found containers. This also applies to rooftops with concrete or decked surfaces.
FIRE ESCAPES
Fire escapes are harsh environments for growing plants due to the wind, intense heat and dryness. Container plants in these areas need much watering, and some plants are more suited to this setting than others, including lavender, marigold, rosemary, tomatoes, and tomatillos.
Read the next section, Soil Preparation...
1:b,i) CONVERTING PUBLIC SPACES INTO TILLABLE LAND
Large areas of grassy lawns are ideal sites for farming, including public parks and some corporate and government buildings that are fronted by wide lawns. Some of these areas should be reserved for grazing by livestock if they are adjacent to small buildings that can be converted into barns and coops (see 1:7). The rest will require thorough tilling to break up the grasses and expose fertile soil for planting crops.
CONVERTING LAWN SPACES
One method of removing the grass from lawns to have useable growing soil is to physically remove all the grass with spades and shovels, and composting all the grass. This is a labourious method which yields instant results and provides a massive starter for compost if there is a shortage of it. Using a flat-edged shovel, cut the sod into 1-foot squares or larger, then pull up the top layer of grass with a shovel or spade . Transfer to the compost system. This can be done at any time of the growing year, preferably in the spring.
Another method is sod conversion, which decays the grass converting it into soil. This method requires many months in order for the sod to break down, and so is best done in the fall to have soil ready for the following spring. Cover the entire area of lawn with a biodegradable material like newspaper, to block out the sun. Add a 6-inch layer of compost or soil on top of the newspaper, watering on top of newspaper and compost/soil layers.
A third method of composting lawn is by creating turf loam. In a soil pit, line the bottom with one layer of lawn grass-side-up, and top that with a layer of lawn grass-side down, so the grass surfaces face each other. Repeat this with one more layer, then cover with a top layer of soil (saved from digging the pit). Allow to decompose for several summer months or until preparing seedling flats the following spring (see 1:3).
1:b,ii) MAP OF LOCATIONS IN TORONTO
Below is a map of lawn spaces in Toronto that are at various stages of being converted into farmland.
High Park (Bloor St. & Parkside Ave.)
Trinity Bellwoods Park (Dundas St. W. & Ossington Ave.)
Earlscourt Park (St. Clair Ave. W. & Lansdowne Ave.)
Sir Winston Churchill Park (Spadina Rd. & St. Clair Ave. W.)
Queens Park (University Ave. & College Ave.)
Christie Pits (Bloor St. & Christie Ave.)
Allan Gardens (Gerrard St. E. & Jarvis)
Riverdale Park West (Riverdale Farm) (Carlton & Bayview)
Riverdale Park East (Broadview & Danforth)
Don Valley Brick Works (Bayview Ave)
Withrow Park (Pape & Danforth)
Woodbine Park (Queen St. East & Kingston Rd.)
Taylor Creek Park (Woodbine Ave & O’Connor Dr)
Lower Don Parklands
E. T. Seton Park
Sunnybrook Park
Ashridges Bay Park
Tommy Thomson Park
Toronto Island
1:b,iii) WATER SOURCES
Although crops will grow with just the water provided by rain, it will yield much smaller quantities and sizes of produce. Irrigation is necessary in this climate, and outlined below are sources of water, how to collect and transport water, plus irrigation systems.
EXISTING WATER SOURCES
Pollution is the main factor concerning water sources in the city, but unfortunately this problem is widespread. The water available will need to be used for irrigation regardless, but it will affect the quality of the produce and in any case should not be used for drinking or cooking without treatment (see 1:2:iv).
PONDS
Grenadier Pond (High Park) – adjacent to parkland
Ontario Science Center – adjacent to parkland
RIVERS & CREEKS
All downtown tributaries were buried over a century ago, leaving only the Don River at the east edge (much too polluted to use for crop watering), the Humber River at the west end (both too far and too marshy for irrigation), and Balfour Creek at Yonge and St. Clair (almost dried up).
1:b,iv) IRRIGATION
In cases where farmland has no access to water bodies, rain can still be a main source of water, but collected to be used in an irrigation system. This is rainwater harvesting, a simple technology that greatly suits this city’s current situation, for farming as well as daily consumption.
In the case of High Park, there is a water source directly connected to the farmland. In cases such as this, irrigation systems can come from the water source using a conveyor system to carry water up from the water source to a holding tank. The tank must be elevated higher than the highest spot on the field, as gravity and water pressure will propel water through the water hose. Connect the hose to a tap at the bottom of the tank.
Alternately, use the tap to fill buckets or other containers to carry water to fields that are far from water sources. See section 2 for methods of harvesting rainwater.For passive irrigation based on water pressure, install a drip system of interconnected hoses (preferably between 1/8” and 1/2” diameter) with holes punched in even increments to let water leak onto fields directly at plant bases.
1:b,v) DOMESTIC & NEIGHBOURHOOD FARMING
Large public spaces will provide the majority of produce and pasture land needed for the citizens of Toronto. To maximize production of foods and herbs for consumption as well as medicinal purposes, it is best to convert unused outdoor spaces in homes, buildings and neighbourhoods, into productive areas. Domestic yards of grass or soil are obvious sites for growing a garden. For non-soil areas, plants will have to be container gardened.
ROOFTOPS
All flat, accessible rooftops can be converted into garden spaces. However, due to the weight of soil and water, not all rooftops have the adequate load-bearing support right on the roof. They will, however, be sturdy enough at the perimeter that large metal grates or planks of wood can rest on. The containers will have to be large enough to grow plenty of food, and also to not fall over strong winds common to elevated areas.
DECKS, PATIOS & BALCONIES
These areas have sturdy concrete or wood floors and high barriers are built for extra weight, therefore can house large gardens in constructed boxes or found containers. This also applies to rooftops with concrete or decked surfaces.
FIRE ESCAPES
Fire escapes are harsh environments for growing plants due to the wind, intense heat and dryness. Container plants in these areas need much watering, and some plants are more suited to this setting than others, including lavender, marigold, rosemary, tomatoes, and tomatillos.
Read the next section, Soil Preparation...
Soil Preparation
Generally the soil in Toronto is of poor quality for growing crops and will require as much nourishment as possible before farming. Start by nourishing with green manure: planting alfalfa and comfrey in the spring, and tilling it back into the land at the end of the growing season. The deep roots of these plants will draw nutrients up from deeper soil, producing much higher quality soil the following spring for growing good-quality crops. After a year of preparing soil with this green manure or by mulching (see below), test the soil type for pH balance and adjust with additives and natural fertilizer when available.
Fertile soil requires 3 things: a healthy ratio of silt, clay, sand and organic matter; a pH balance of neither too acidic nor too alkaline; high nutrient and organic matter present.
Fertile, humus-rich soil is called loam, and contains about 40 percent silt, 20 percent clay, and 40 percent a combination of sand and organic matter. This ratio ensures good drainage, looseness, and retention of moisture and nutrients.
1:c,i) TESTING SOIL TYPE
To determine the make-up of your soil, place a cupful in a 1-litre jar, top up with water and shake well. The soil will settle in distinct layers of sand, silt and clay. The relative thickness of the layers indicates the proportion of each.
If you find 1/3 or more is clay, you need to lighten the soil by adding sand, peat moss, compost, or a combination of thereof.
The most accurate pH test is done using a pH soil testing kit. Since these are no longer in production and therefore unavailable, tasting the soil is a good test and is also harmless to people. If it tastes salty-sweet the soil is alkaline, and if it tastes sour or bitter it is acidic.
Some crops do well in acidic soil, and others in alkaline, but most crops do best in neutral soil that is just a little bit acidic. To neutralize soil that is either too acidic or too alkaline, work in a generous amount of compost and fresh manure.
1:c,ii) FERTILIZING & MULCHING
Fertilizing is imperative for high-yield food production and to balance the nutrients in the soil for healthy plant growth. Below is a chart of different kinds and their contributions.
BONEMEAL: P (20-25%); gentle; slow acting
COMPOST: all nutrients; best all-round fertilizer
DRIED BLOOD: N (5-12%) & P (3-13%); best source of nitrogen; helps soil organisms grow; quick acting
FISH MEAL: N (6-8%) & P (13%) & K (3-4%); quick acting
HORN/HOOF MEAL: N (7-15%); quick acting
DRIED GOAT/SHEEP MANURE: N (2.5%) & P (1.5%) & K (1.5%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
FRESH HORSE MANURE: N (0.7%) & P (0.25%) & K (0.55%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
DRIED POULTRY MANURE: N (2.4%) & P (3.2%) & K (1.3%); will burn plants if used directly on field; must be used in combination with other fertilizers
FRESH RABBIT MANURE: N (2.4%); P (1.4%) & K (0.6%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
WOOD ASHES: P (1-2%) & K (3-7%); for an alkaline effect on the soil
P = Phosphorus; N = Nitrogen; K = Potassium
TROUBLESHOOTING:
Deficiency of phosphorus: plants will be stunted in growth and have leaves of a darker green than normal
Deficiency of nitrogen: plants will be stunted in growth with yellow leaves
Excess of nitrogen: plants will produce little fruit and weak stems
Deficiency of potassium: plant leaves will be dark green with yellowish brown leaf edges or dark brown spots on older leaves’ tips
1:c,iii) TILLING & AERATING THE SOIL
Tilling the soil is important as it breaks up and buries matter that would otherwise compete with cultivated plants for space, water and nutrients. It also loosens the soil, kills eggs and larvae of many insect pests, and enriches the soil, all of which help produce stronger, more fruitful plants. A disadvantage to tilling is that it also kills worms and other insects that help aerate the soil continually, and it also dries out the rich earth that’s brought to open air. To prevent drying out, mulching is imperative. Bio-intensive agriculture requires double-digging the earth, a type of tilling that is labour-intensive but extremely thorough and effective in preparing soil for excellent crop production for years to come, producing 2 to 4 times more food and doubling soil fertility compared to using traditional, conventional row beds in the same amount of space.
STEP 1: For lawns and grassy areas, remove top grass layer with a shovel or spade and set out on the roads to dry and use for compost. (see 1:2:i)
STEP 2: Thoroughly soak the area to be dug, preferably in 5 foot by 20 foot beds, then let it dry out for 2 days.
STEP 3: Loosen the top 12 inches of soul with a spading fork and remove weeds.
STEP 4: Water soil lightly and let rest for 1 day.
STEP 5: At this point, add a 1” layer of sand if soy is clayey, or clay if soil is sandy, and work into the loose soil.
STEP 6: Add a 1” layer of compost and work into the soil.
STEP 7: Water lightly and let rest for 1 day.
From here proceed with double-digging method of tilling soil into trenches:
STEP 8: Place a digging board (a large scrap piece of plywood works well) over soil, pulling back off the area that is the first trench, then keep moving back as you work each trench.
STEP 9: Standing on the digging board, dig a 1-foot-wide by 1-foot-deep trench, saving most of that removed soil to start compost, and using some to make flat soil for growing seedlings.
STEP 10: Loosen the soil at the bottom of that first trench (“double-dig”), to a further depth of 1 foot. If the soil is very hard and compacted, do at least 4 inches or as much as will loosen.
STEP 11: Dig out the second 1-foot by 1-foot trench and move this soil over to fill the first trench, mixing the layers as little as possible. Do not turn the upper layer over when moving it from one trench to another – you are trying to keep the natural soil stratification intact.
STEP 12: Loosen the soil at the bottom of that second trench (“double-dig”) to a depth of 1 more foot, or at least 4 inches.
STEP 13: Continue until all trenches are dug.
STEP 14: Level and shape the entire bed with a mounded top, filling the last trench with soil.
STEP 15: Sprinkle the top of the bed with compost and whatever fertilizer and pH neutralizer required as per above. Do not rake or disturb the top of the soil at this point.
STEP 16: Plant seeds or transplant seedlings.
STEP 17: Cover earth with mulch (wood chips, shredded paper, scattered straw).
STEP 18: Water thoroughly.
Read the next section, Planting...
Fertile soil requires 3 things: a healthy ratio of silt, clay, sand and organic matter; a pH balance of neither too acidic nor too alkaline; high nutrient and organic matter present.
Fertile, humus-rich soil is called loam, and contains about 40 percent silt, 20 percent clay, and 40 percent a combination of sand and organic matter. This ratio ensures good drainage, looseness, and retention of moisture and nutrients.
1:c,i) TESTING SOIL TYPE
To determine the make-up of your soil, place a cupful in a 1-litre jar, top up with water and shake well. The soil will settle in distinct layers of sand, silt and clay. The relative thickness of the layers indicates the proportion of each.If you find 1/3 or more is clay, you need to lighten the soil by adding sand, peat moss, compost, or a combination of thereof.
The most accurate pH test is done using a pH soil testing kit. Since these are no longer in production and therefore unavailable, tasting the soil is a good test and is also harmless to people. If it tastes salty-sweet the soil is alkaline, and if it tastes sour or bitter it is acidic.
Some crops do well in acidic soil, and others in alkaline, but most crops do best in neutral soil that is just a little bit acidic. To neutralize soil that is either too acidic or too alkaline, work in a generous amount of compost and fresh manure.
1:c,ii) FERTILIZING & MULCHING
Fertilizing is imperative for high-yield food production and to balance the nutrients in the soil for healthy plant growth. Below is a chart of different kinds and their contributions.
BONEMEAL: P (20-25%); gentle; slow acting
COMPOST: all nutrients; best all-round fertilizer
DRIED BLOOD: N (5-12%) & P (3-13%); best source of nitrogen; helps soil organisms grow; quick acting
FISH MEAL: N (6-8%) & P (13%) & K (3-4%); quick acting
HORN/HOOF MEAL: N (7-15%); quick acting
DRIED GOAT/SHEEP MANURE: N (2.5%) & P (1.5%) & K (1.5%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
FRESH HORSE MANURE: N (0.7%) & P (0.25%) & K (0.55%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
DRIED POULTRY MANURE: N (2.4%) & P (3.2%) & K (1.3%); will burn plants if used directly on field; must be used in combination with other fertilizers
FRESH RABBIT MANURE: N (2.4%); P (1.4%) & K (0.6%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
WOOD ASHES: P (1-2%) & K (3-7%); for an alkaline effect on the soil
P = Phosphorus; N = Nitrogen; K = Potassium
TROUBLESHOOTING:
Deficiency of phosphorus: plants will be stunted in growth and have leaves of a darker green than normal
Deficiency of nitrogen: plants will be stunted in growth with yellow leaves
Excess of nitrogen: plants will produce little fruit and weak stems
Deficiency of potassium: plant leaves will be dark green with yellowish brown leaf edges or dark brown spots on older leaves’ tips
1:c,iii) TILLING & AERATING THE SOIL
Tilling the soil is important as it breaks up and buries matter that would otherwise compete with cultivated plants for space, water and nutrients. It also loosens the soil, kills eggs and larvae of many insect pests, and enriches the soil, all of which help produce stronger, more fruitful plants. A disadvantage to tilling is that it also kills worms and other insects that help aerate the soil continually, and it also dries out the rich earth that’s brought to open air. To prevent drying out, mulching is imperative. Bio-intensive agriculture requires double-digging the earth, a type of tilling that is labour-intensive but extremely thorough and effective in preparing soil for excellent crop production for years to come, producing 2 to 4 times more food and doubling soil fertility compared to using traditional, conventional row beds in the same amount of space.
STEP 1: For lawns and grassy areas, remove top grass layer with a shovel or spade and set out on the roads to dry and use for compost. (see 1:2:i)
STEP 2: Thoroughly soak the area to be dug, preferably in 5 foot by 20 foot beds, then let it dry out for 2 days.
STEP 3: Loosen the top 12 inches of soul with a spading fork and remove weeds.
STEP 4: Water soil lightly and let rest for 1 day.
STEP 5: At this point, add a 1” layer of sand if soy is clayey, or clay if soil is sandy, and work into the loose soil.
STEP 6: Add a 1” layer of compost and work into the soil.
STEP 7: Water lightly and let rest for 1 day.
From here proceed with double-digging method of tilling soil into trenches:
STEP 8: Place a digging board (a large scrap piece of plywood works well) over soil, pulling back off the area that is the first trench, then keep moving back as you work each trench.
STEP 9: Standing on the digging board, dig a 1-foot-wide by 1-foot-deep trench, saving most of that removed soil to start compost, and using some to make flat soil for growing seedlings.
STEP 10: Loosen the soil at the bottom of that first trench (“double-dig”), to a further depth of 1 foot. If the soil is very hard and compacted, do at least 4 inches or as much as will loosen.
STEP 11: Dig out the second 1-foot by 1-foot trench and move this soil over to fill the first trench, mixing the layers as little as possible. Do not turn the upper layer over when moving it from one trench to another – you are trying to keep the natural soil stratification intact.
STEP 12: Loosen the soil at the bottom of that second trench (“double-dig”) to a depth of 1 more foot, or at least 4 inches.
STEP 13: Continue until all trenches are dug.
STEP 14: Level and shape the entire bed with a mounded top, filling the last trench with soil.
STEP 15: Sprinkle the top of the bed with compost and whatever fertilizer and pH neutralizer required as per above. Do not rake or disturb the top of the soil at this point.
STEP 16: Plant seeds or transplant seedlings.
STEP 17: Cover earth with mulch (wood chips, shredded paper, scattered straw).
STEP 18: Water thoroughly.
Read the next section, Planting...
Planting
Once the urban farm spaces have been selected, grass removed and soil prepared, it is ready for planting. For the first year of planting, it is best to prepare the soil the year before, to give the farmland time to turn compost and mulch into nutrient-rich soil.
1:d,i) PREPARING SEEDLINGS
It is recommended to plant seeds in flats rather than straight into the farm soil for several reasons. One is that by planting in flats, they can be stored in small seedling greenhouses to help protect them from cold, wind and frost in early spring when it would be too cold for seeds out in the elements. This extends the growing season. Another reason is that the soil can by used for other purposes while seedlings grow elsewhere, for example it can be producing green manure (see 1:3), and be prepared through tilling and aerating. Also, weaker seeds will not waste space on the land and can be excluded during the transplanting process.
SEEDLING FLATS
Begin by building flats for the seedlings. The standard flat size is 3 inches deep by 14 inches wide by 23 inches long (internal dimensions). Flat length and width are not critical, but depth needs to be 3 inches as a shallower soil will result in stunted plants.
Completely filling the flat, add special soil mixture that is ideal for seedling growth. There are 2 mixtures you can use: 1) Combine (by volume) one part soil from the earth where the plants will be transplanted to (farmland; use soil saved from the first trench dug when aerating), with one part sifted compost. 2) Combine (by weight) one part each moist, sifted compost, gritty sand, and turf loam (for how to make turf loam, see 1:2:i). If available, line the bottom of the flat with decayed oak leaves for drainage and extra nutrients.
SOWING SEEDS
Plant seeds 1” to 2” apart, depending on the plant (see Master Charts at the end of this section), and as deep as the thin vertical dimension of each side. Cover the seeds with a layer of soil.
Now that the seeds are sown, place the flats in miniature greenhouses for germination and growth (up to 12 weeks depending on plant). Transfer to a cold frame for 2 days when seedlings are almost ready for transplanting, then out into the open air for 2 more days to complete the hardening off process before transplanting.
To deter mice and birds, a cover can be built for the flats using scavenged or reclaimed materials: construct a frame of the same size as the flat, and top with wire mesh; place this on top of the flat outdoors.
1:d,ii) HOUSING & TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS
MINI-GREENHOUSES & COLD FRAMES
A mini-greenhouse made from plastic sheeting, glass and wood can increase the temperature of the soil and the air surrounding plants. Double-glazing, which is a double layer of plastic sheeting or glass with an airtight gap between them, will protect the plants in sub-zero weather.
Cold frames provide slightly less solar heating than a greenhouse and helps harden seedlings before being transplanted into the colder farmland outdoors.
BUILDING FULL-SIZED GREENHOUSES
Mini-greenhouses are suitable for home gardens or individually-attended plots. For community-scale farming, full-sized greenhouses will serve a larger number of seedling flats.
TRANSPLANTING
Most seedlings are ready to be transplanted when they are 2” to 3” (see Master Chart at the end of this section). Handle seedlings as little and gently as possible. Early evening is the best time to transplant so the seedlings settle into the new soil during more moderate weather conditions.
Using a fork, gently separate a 4” x 4” section of soil containing seedlings. Place this section on the ground and carefully pull away one plant at a time for transplanting. Keep as much soil around the roots as possible. If the roots are tightly packed, gently spread the roots out in all directions. Following the Biointensive Farming method below for layout and schedule, place each seedling into a large enough hole to cover the plant/roots with soil up to and including the first set of true leaves. Water gently and thoroughly, then press the soil firmly around the seedling.
It is advised to save extra seedlings in flats instead of transplanting all available seedlings at once. This is because inevitably some transplanted seedlings will die off or be eaten by animals or insects, leaving spots in the soil pattern of seedlings. These spots will need to be filled in order to preserve the miniclimate created by closely planted seedlings, as per the biointensive method outlined below.
1:d,iii) BIOINTENSIVE FARMING
Biointensive Farming is a term used to describe a kind of produce production that actually helps build up soil health and does not deplete topsoil, unlike conventional farming practices of the past which were unsustainable and resulted in a net reduction of overall soil quality worldwide. Biointensive farming follows the following principles:
- Deep soil preparation to develop good soil structure
- Use of compost for soil fertility and nutrients
- Close plant spacing to mimic nature and maximize production
- Companion planting to boost plant health and deter pests naturally
- Dual-purpose seed and grain crop plantation for production of large amounts of carbonaceous compost materials, as well as significant amounts of dietary calories
- High-calorie crops using 30% of growing area for roots vegetables
- Open-pollinated seed use to preserve genetic diversity
Biointensive farming is a whole, interrelated system where all the components must be used together for optimum effect. This system uses less water than conventional farming methods, less fertilizer, does not require machinery, increases soil fertility, encourages biodiversity, and uses 100% space efficiency.
HEXAGONAL LAYOUT
Planting seedlings at even intervals helps plants grow better. The leaves form an even canopy over the soil, creating a microclimate that prevents soil from drying out or getting overly wet, and the roots have an even supply of nutrients. Different plants require different amounts of space between plants (see Master Chart at the end of this section), but all plants should be planted in a hexagonal layout. To achieve this, create a triangular template to guide placement of seeds:
PLANTING SCHEDULE
WINTER: plan the planting layout; prepare flats, trellises, mini-greenhouses
SPRING: plant flats; start new compost piles with weeds, grass clippings and compost crops; harvest compost crops; dig garden beds; spread cured fall/winter compost; plant cool-weather crops
SUMMER: plant summer crops; keep garden watered and weeded; harvest as needed; plant fall-gardens of cool-weather crops at end of summer
FALL: begin additional compost piles with leaves and garden waste; harvest summer crops; plant fall/winter compost crops.
FARMING LAYOUT TO FEED FOUR PEOPLE
Most growing beds are 100 square feet (5 by 20 feet). Crops planted in the spring make way for late summer crops when spring crops are harvested. Some crops stay all season.
1:d,iv) COMPANION PLANTING
Companion planting is the constructive use of plant relationships, building on each plant’s complementary physical demands. Placing complementary plants together creates a microcosm that includes vegetables, fruits, trees, bushes, wheat, flowers, weeds, birds, soil, microorganisms, water, nutrients, insects, toads, spiders and chickens, to grow together and help repel pests.
For large-scale planting, as seen in the plan above, the plants complement each other over a larger area, sharing the beds with several crops, and rotating within the season.
LIST OF COMMON VEGETABLES AND THEIR CORRESPONDING COMPANIONS (beneficial when planted closeby) AND ANTAGONISTS (should not be planted together):
ASPARAGUS: companions: tomatoes, parsley, basil
BEANS: companions: potatoes, carrots, cucumbers, cauliflower, cabbage, most herbs;
antagonists: onions, garlic, gladiolus, chives
BUSH BEANS: companions: potatoes, cucumbers, corn, strawberries, celery
antagonists: onions
POLE BEANS: companions: corn, sunflowers
antagonists: onions, beets, kohlrabi, cabbage
BEETS: companions: onions, kohlrabi
antagonists: pole beans
CABBAGE FAMILY: companions: aromatic plants, potatoes, celery, dill, chamomile, sage, peppermint, rosemary, beets, onions
antagonists: strawberries, tomatoes, pole beans
CARROTS: companions: peas, leaf lettuce, chives, onions, leeks, rosemary, sage, tomatoes
antagonists: dill
CELERY: companions: leeks, tomatoes, bush beans, cauliflower, cabbage
CHIVES: companions: carrots, tomatoes
antagonists: peas, beans
CORN: companions: potatoes, peas, beans, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash
CUCUMBERS: companions: beans, corn, peas, radishes, sunflowers, lettuce
antagonists: potatoes, aromatic herbs
EGGPLANT: companions: beans, potatoes
LEEKS: companions: onions, celery, carrots
LETTUCE: companions: carrots and radishes, strawberries, cucumbers, onions
ONIONS/GARLIC: companions: beets, strawberries, tomatoes, lettuce, leeks, chamomile
antagonists: peas, beans
PARSLEY: companions: tomatoes, asparagus
PEAS: companions: carrots, turnips, radishes, cucumbers, corn, beans, most herbs
antagonists: onions, garlic, gladiolus, potatoes, chives
POTATOES: companions: beans, corn, cabbage, marigolds, eggplant
antagonists: pumpkins, squash, cucumbers, sunflowers, tomatoes, raspberries
PUMPKINS: companions: corn
antagonists: potatoes
RADISHES: companions: peas, nasturtiums, lettuce, cucumbers
SOYBEANS: grows with anything, helps everything
SPINACH: companions: strawberries
SQUASH: companions: nasturtiums, corn
antagonists: potatoes
STRAWBERRIES: companions: bush beans, spinach, borage, lettuce (as a border), onions
antagonists: cabbage
SUNFLOWERS: companions: cucumbers
antagonists: potatoes
TOMATOES: companions: chives, onions, parsley, asparagus, marigolds, nasturtiums, carrots
antagonists: kohlrabi, potatoes, fennel, cabbage
TURNIPS: companions: peas
1:d,v) PEST CONTROL
COMPANION PLANTING FOR PEST CONTROL
Certain herbs and crops will deter insect pests. Below is a list of pets and the plants that control them.
ANTS: spearmint, tansy, pennyroyal
APHIDS: nasturtium, spearmint, stinging nettle, southernwood, garlic
BLACK FLEA BEETLE: wormwood, mint
BLACK FLY: Intercropping, stinging nettle
CABBAGEWORM BUTTERFLY: sage, rosemary, hyssop, thyme, mint, wormwood, southernwood
CUTWORM: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
FLIES: nut trees, rue, tansy, spray of wormwood and/or tomato
JAPANESE BEETLES: white geranium
JUNE BUG GRUB: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
MALARIA MOSQUITO: wormwood, southernwood, rosemary
MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE: potatoes
MOSQUITO: legumes
MOTHS: sage, santolina, lavender, mint, stinging nettle, herbs
PLANT LICE: castor bean, sassafras, pennyroyal
POTATO BEETLES: eggplant, flax, green beans
SLUGS: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
SQUASH BUGS: nasturtium
STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE: radish
WEEVILS: garlic
WOOLLY APHIDS: nasturtium
WORMS IN GOATS: carrots
WORMS IN HORSES: tansy leaves, mulberry leaves
NATURAL PREDATORS FOR PEST CONTROL
Encourage natural insect control by enlisting the aid of nature. Birds feed on spiders, caterpillars and worms. You can encourage the presence of birds with running water, planting bushes for their protection, planting sour berry bushes for food, and by growing plants that have seeds they like to eat. Toads, snakes and spiders eat cutworms, slugs, crickets, ants, caterpillars and squash bugs. Ladybugs feast on aphids alone. Praying mantids should only be used in infestation emergencies as their diet is not selective. Trichogramma wasps lay their eggs in pests’ larvae, which eventually kill the pests. Tachinid flies are parasites that help control caterpillars, Japanese beetles, earwigs, moths, tomato worms, and grasshoppers. Syrphid flies prey upon aphids and help pollinate crops.
HAND-PICKING FOR PEST CONTROL
Labour-intensive though it may be, you can pick the pest insects from the plants manually – providing it is certain the insect is harmful and the source of the problem. Spraying is another effective method: create a tea from strong substances like garlic, onion and hot peppers to spray on plants and discourage chewing insects from eating the stems, leaves and fruits. Mild soap solutions (not detergents) asphyxiate tender bugs when sprayed.
1:d,vi) GRAINS
Grains are a necessary crop to grow for human consumption of wheat, oats, barley, rye and buckwheat, while hay is a major supplement to farm animals over colder months. Generally grains are easy to grow provided the soil has been prepared adequately before planting. On average, a 20 foot by 55 foot plot of land will supply wheat for 4 people for one year.
SOWING WINTER GRAINS
WINTER CROPS: winter wheat, barley, and other hardy crops can be sown in early fall, allowed to grow a little, then go dormant over the winter; in the spring, the crops shoot up and are ready for harvest in mid-summer.
SPRING CROPS: hardy or delicate crops, including spring wheat, can all be sown at the end of the last frost in early spring and are ready for harvest in early fall.
Soil should ideally be prepared as outlined in section 1:3, and at the very least should be well-tilled and fortified with green manure or compost. To sow seeds, use a broadcasting method of scattering the seeds by hand. To ensure even coverage, scatter at a 45 degree angle while walking up one side of the plot, then return down scattering at the opposite angle over the first scattering. After sowing, till or rake the soil to work the seeds in.
Rotate the location of your grain plots from year to year to avoid soil depletion, varying the type of grain grown in the prepared land. A typical rotation plan, year to year, might be corn the first year, followed by alfalfa, then winter wheat, then vegetables, then soybeans, then hay pasture, etc.
GROWING GUIDE FOR MAJOR GRAINS
WHEAT: Requires a cool, moist growing season and two months of hot, dry weather for ripening. Winter wheat is sown in late-September, and spring wheat along with other crops.
OATS: A hardy crop that produces high-protein grain. Thrives in a cool, moist climate and cannot tolerate drought. Sown as a spring crop and harvested into shocks and left to dry on the field.
RYE: Can be used for green manure and as a cover crop, as well as a grain for making bread and feeding farm animals. Sown in the fall, this crop does well in poorer soil and tolerates cold, drought and dampness.
BUCKWHEAT: This crop prefers moist, acid soil and hot weather. Matures rapidly (60 to 90 days) and can be sown in the same plot as winter wheat once the wheat is harvested.
BARLEY: Requires a long, cool ripening season and moderate moisture. Plant in early spring. Excellent dietary staple for humans and farm animals.
CORN: Many varieties of corn exist, though generally corn for eating fresh is of the sweet variety while “field corn” used for making flour is not sweet. Ready for harvest after the plants are dead and dry. Ears of corn should be husked and stored away from rain and mold immediately.
HARVESTING WHOLE GRAINS
After the grain has been cut, gather the stalks into sheaves and stack them to dry in the field, in groups of 3 sheaves leaning against each other vertically, until no trace of green is left.
To thresh the grain (remove grains from stalks), lay the sheaves on a sheet over a hard surface and hit the seed heads with a stick to knock the seeds loose. To separate the grain from the chaff (outer husk), toss the grains up in the sheet on a breezy day, or pour grain and chaff back and forth from one container to another on a breezy day, as the wind will blow the chaff away but let the grain fall.
Store grain in a covered metal container, or wooden bin that as been rat proofed with wire mesh (scavenged or reclaimed). Stored grain must be kept thoroughly dry to prevent mold.
1:d,vii) MASTER CHARTS
BC = broadcast (scattered)
HEMP CULTIVATION
Hemp is a cannabis plant from the same family as marijuana, and as such there were once laws in place that forbade the production of both plants. Now, the many benefits of producing hemp have been recognized by the authorities and it is now encouraged to produce due to its many values. As well, the myth that hemp was an intoxicant has been debunked, the THC levels in industrial hemp are so low that no one could get high from smoking it. Moreover, hemp contains a relatively high percentage of another cannabinoid, CBD, that actually blocks a marijuana high. Therefore hemp has come to be known as "antimarijuana."
Hemp is one of the most versatile plants know to humankind. Its fibers can be used for textiles, rope and paper. Its seeds are an extremely healthful food in whole form or as a naturally omega-rich unsaturated oil, which can also be used as fuel in oil-burning lamps or stoves. One hectare of seed hemp produces 1000 to 1500 liters of hemp oil plus several thousand kilos of fiber. Hemp plants are easy to grow and can generally follow the same guides as used for the sesame plant.
NOTE: It is strongly advised to refrain from cultivating marijuana plants as these are still outlawed. The discovery of any marijuana grow operations can result in a seisure of property and land which would have detrimental effects if it is also land being used for vital food production.
Read the next section, Composting...
1:d,i) PREPARING SEEDLINGS
It is recommended to plant seeds in flats rather than straight into the farm soil for several reasons. One is that by planting in flats, they can be stored in small seedling greenhouses to help protect them from cold, wind and frost in early spring when it would be too cold for seeds out in the elements. This extends the growing season. Another reason is that the soil can by used for other purposes while seedlings grow elsewhere, for example it can be producing green manure (see 1:3), and be prepared through tilling and aerating. Also, weaker seeds will not waste space on the land and can be excluded during the transplanting process.
SEEDLING FLATSBegin by building flats for the seedlings. The standard flat size is 3 inches deep by 14 inches wide by 23 inches long (internal dimensions). Flat length and width are not critical, but depth needs to be 3 inches as a shallower soil will result in stunted plants.
Completely filling the flat, add special soil mixture that is ideal for seedling growth. There are 2 mixtures you can use: 1) Combine (by volume) one part soil from the earth where the plants will be transplanted to (farmland; use soil saved from the first trench dug when aerating), with one part sifted compost. 2) Combine (by weight) one part each moist, sifted compost, gritty sand, and turf loam (for how to make turf loam, see 1:2:i). If available, line the bottom of the flat with decayed oak leaves for drainage and extra nutrients.
SOWING SEEDS
Plant seeds 1” to 2” apart, depending on the plant (see Master Charts at the end of this section), and as deep as the thin vertical dimension of each side. Cover the seeds with a layer of soil.
Now that the seeds are sown, place the flats in miniature greenhouses for germination and growth (up to 12 weeks depending on plant). Transfer to a cold frame for 2 days when seedlings are almost ready for transplanting, then out into the open air for 2 more days to complete the hardening off process before transplanting.
To deter mice and birds, a cover can be built for the flats using scavenged or reclaimed materials: construct a frame of the same size as the flat, and top with wire mesh; place this on top of the flat outdoors.
1:d,ii) HOUSING & TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS
MINI-GREENHOUSES & COLD FRAMES
A mini-greenhouse made from plastic sheeting, glass and wood can increase the temperature of the soil and the air surrounding plants. Double-glazing, which is a double layer of plastic sheeting or glass with an airtight gap between them, will protect the plants in sub-zero weather.
Cold frames provide slightly less solar heating than a greenhouse and helps harden seedlings before being transplanted into the colder farmland outdoors.
BUILDING FULL-SIZED GREENHOUSESMini-greenhouses are suitable for home gardens or individually-attended plots. For community-scale farming, full-sized greenhouses will serve a larger number of seedling flats.
TRANSPLANTING
Most seedlings are ready to be transplanted when they are 2” to 3” (see Master Chart at the end of this section). Handle seedlings as little and gently as possible. Early evening is the best time to transplant so the seedlings settle into the new soil during more moderate weather conditions.
Using a fork, gently separate a 4” x 4” section of soil containing seedlings. Place this section on the ground and carefully pull away one plant at a time for transplanting. Keep as much soil around the roots as possible. If the roots are tightly packed, gently spread the roots out in all directions. Following the Biointensive Farming method below for layout and schedule, place each seedling into a large enough hole to cover the plant/roots with soil up to and including the first set of true leaves. Water gently and thoroughly, then press the soil firmly around the seedling.
It is advised to save extra seedlings in flats instead of transplanting all available seedlings at once. This is because inevitably some transplanted seedlings will die off or be eaten by animals or insects, leaving spots in the soil pattern of seedlings. These spots will need to be filled in order to preserve the miniclimate created by closely planted seedlings, as per the biointensive method outlined below.
1:d,iii) BIOINTENSIVE FARMING
Biointensive Farming is a term used to describe a kind of produce production that actually helps build up soil health and does not deplete topsoil, unlike conventional farming practices of the past which were unsustainable and resulted in a net reduction of overall soil quality worldwide. Biointensive farming follows the following principles:
- Deep soil preparation to develop good soil structure
- Use of compost for soil fertility and nutrients
- Close plant spacing to mimic nature and maximize production
- Companion planting to boost plant health and deter pests naturally
- Dual-purpose seed and grain crop plantation for production of large amounts of carbonaceous compost materials, as well as significant amounts of dietary calories
- High-calorie crops using 30% of growing area for roots vegetables
- Open-pollinated seed use to preserve genetic diversity
Biointensive farming is a whole, interrelated system where all the components must be used together for optimum effect. This system uses less water than conventional farming methods, less fertilizer, does not require machinery, increases soil fertility, encourages biodiversity, and uses 100% space efficiency.HEXAGONAL LAYOUT
Planting seedlings at even intervals helps plants grow better. The leaves form an even canopy over the soil, creating a microclimate that prevents soil from drying out or getting overly wet, and the roots have an even supply of nutrients. Different plants require different amounts of space between plants (see Master Chart at the end of this section), but all plants should be planted in a hexagonal layout. To achieve this, create a triangular template to guide placement of seeds:
PLANTING SCHEDULE
WINTER: plan the planting layout; prepare flats, trellises, mini-greenhouses
SPRING: plant flats; start new compost piles with weeds, grass clippings and compost crops; harvest compost crops; dig garden beds; spread cured fall/winter compost; plant cool-weather crops
SUMMER: plant summer crops; keep garden watered and weeded; harvest as needed; plant fall-gardens of cool-weather crops at end of summer
FALL: begin additional compost piles with leaves and garden waste; harvest summer crops; plant fall/winter compost crops.
FARMING LAYOUT TO FEED FOUR PEOPLE
Most growing beds are 100 square feet (5 by 20 feet). Crops planted in the spring make way for late summer crops when spring crops are harvested. Some crops stay all season.
1:d,iv) COMPANION PLANTING
Companion planting is the constructive use of plant relationships, building on each plant’s complementary physical demands. Placing complementary plants together creates a microcosm that includes vegetables, fruits, trees, bushes, wheat, flowers, weeds, birds, soil, microorganisms, water, nutrients, insects, toads, spiders and chickens, to grow together and help repel pests.
For large-scale planting, as seen in the plan above, the plants complement each other over a larger area, sharing the beds with several crops, and rotating within the season.
LIST OF COMMON VEGETABLES AND THEIR CORRESPONDING COMPANIONS (beneficial when planted closeby) AND ANTAGONISTS (should not be planted together):
ASPARAGUS: companions: tomatoes, parsley, basil
BEANS: companions: potatoes, carrots, cucumbers, cauliflower, cabbage, most herbs;
antagonists: onions, garlic, gladiolus, chives
BUSH BEANS: companions: potatoes, cucumbers, corn, strawberries, celery
antagonists: onions
POLE BEANS: companions: corn, sunflowers
antagonists: onions, beets, kohlrabi, cabbage
BEETS: companions: onions, kohlrabi
antagonists: pole beans
CABBAGE FAMILY: companions: aromatic plants, potatoes, celery, dill, chamomile, sage, peppermint, rosemary, beets, onions
antagonists: strawberries, tomatoes, pole beans
CARROTS: companions: peas, leaf lettuce, chives, onions, leeks, rosemary, sage, tomatoes
antagonists: dill
CELERY: companions: leeks, tomatoes, bush beans, cauliflower, cabbage
CHIVES: companions: carrots, tomatoes
antagonists: peas, beans
CORN: companions: potatoes, peas, beans, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash
CUCUMBERS: companions: beans, corn, peas, radishes, sunflowers, lettuce
antagonists: potatoes, aromatic herbs
EGGPLANT: companions: beans, potatoes
LEEKS: companions: onions, celery, carrots
LETTUCE: companions: carrots and radishes, strawberries, cucumbers, onions
ONIONS/GARLIC: companions: beets, strawberries, tomatoes, lettuce, leeks, chamomile
antagonists: peas, beans
PARSLEY: companions: tomatoes, asparagus
PEAS: companions: carrots, turnips, radishes, cucumbers, corn, beans, most herbs
antagonists: onions, garlic, gladiolus, potatoes, chives
POTATOES: companions: beans, corn, cabbage, marigolds, eggplant
antagonists: pumpkins, squash, cucumbers, sunflowers, tomatoes, raspberries
PUMPKINS: companions: corn
antagonists: potatoes
RADISHES: companions: peas, nasturtiums, lettuce, cucumbers
SOYBEANS: grows with anything, helps everything
SPINACH: companions: strawberries
SQUASH: companions: nasturtiums, corn
antagonists: potatoes
STRAWBERRIES: companions: bush beans, spinach, borage, lettuce (as a border), onions
antagonists: cabbage
SUNFLOWERS: companions: cucumbers
antagonists: potatoes
TOMATOES: companions: chives, onions, parsley, asparagus, marigolds, nasturtiums, carrots
antagonists: kohlrabi, potatoes, fennel, cabbage
TURNIPS: companions: peas
1:d,v) PEST CONTROL
COMPANION PLANTING FOR PEST CONTROL
Certain herbs and crops will deter insect pests. Below is a list of pets and the plants that control them.
ANTS: spearmint, tansy, pennyroyal
APHIDS: nasturtium, spearmint, stinging nettle, southernwood, garlic
BLACK FLEA BEETLE: wormwood, mint
BLACK FLY: Intercropping, stinging nettle
CABBAGEWORM BUTTERFLY: sage, rosemary, hyssop, thyme, mint, wormwood, southernwood
CUTWORM: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
FLIES: nut trees, rue, tansy, spray of wormwood and/or tomato
JAPANESE BEETLES: white geranium
JUNE BUG GRUB: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
MALARIA MOSQUITO: wormwood, southernwood, rosemary
MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE: potatoes
MOSQUITO: legumes
MOTHS: sage, santolina, lavender, mint, stinging nettle, herbs
PLANT LICE: castor bean, sassafras, pennyroyal
POTATO BEETLES: eggplant, flax, green beans
SLUGS: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
SQUASH BUGS: nasturtium
STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE: radish
WEEVILS: garlic
WOOLLY APHIDS: nasturtium
WORMS IN GOATS: carrots
WORMS IN HORSES: tansy leaves, mulberry leaves
NATURAL PREDATORS FOR PEST CONTROL
Encourage natural insect control by enlisting the aid of nature. Birds feed on spiders, caterpillars and worms. You can encourage the presence of birds with running water, planting bushes for their protection, planting sour berry bushes for food, and by growing plants that have seeds they like to eat. Toads, snakes and spiders eat cutworms, slugs, crickets, ants, caterpillars and squash bugs. Ladybugs feast on aphids alone. Praying mantids should only be used in infestation emergencies as their diet is not selective. Trichogramma wasps lay their eggs in pests’ larvae, which eventually kill the pests. Tachinid flies are parasites that help control caterpillars, Japanese beetles, earwigs, moths, tomato worms, and grasshoppers. Syrphid flies prey upon aphids and help pollinate crops.
HAND-PICKING FOR PEST CONTROL
Labour-intensive though it may be, you can pick the pest insects from the plants manually – providing it is certain the insect is harmful and the source of the problem. Spraying is another effective method: create a tea from strong substances like garlic, onion and hot peppers to spray on plants and discourage chewing insects from eating the stems, leaves and fruits. Mild soap solutions (not detergents) asphyxiate tender bugs when sprayed.
1:d,vi) GRAINS
Grains are a necessary crop to grow for human consumption of wheat, oats, barley, rye and buckwheat, while hay is a major supplement to farm animals over colder months. Generally grains are easy to grow provided the soil has been prepared adequately before planting. On average, a 20 foot by 55 foot plot of land will supply wheat for 4 people for one year.
SOWING WINTER GRAINS
WINTER CROPS: winter wheat, barley, and other hardy crops can be sown in early fall, allowed to grow a little, then go dormant over the winter; in the spring, the crops shoot up and are ready for harvest in mid-summer.
SPRING CROPS: hardy or delicate crops, including spring wheat, can all be sown at the end of the last frost in early spring and are ready for harvest in early fall.
Soil should ideally be prepared as outlined in section 1:3, and at the very least should be well-tilled and fortified with green manure or compost. To sow seeds, use a broadcasting method of scattering the seeds by hand. To ensure even coverage, scatter at a 45 degree angle while walking up one side of the plot, then return down scattering at the opposite angle over the first scattering. After sowing, till or rake the soil to work the seeds in.
Rotate the location of your grain plots from year to year to avoid soil depletion, varying the type of grain grown in the prepared land. A typical rotation plan, year to year, might be corn the first year, followed by alfalfa, then winter wheat, then vegetables, then soybeans, then hay pasture, etc.
GROWING GUIDE FOR MAJOR GRAINS
WHEAT: Requires a cool, moist growing season and two months of hot, dry weather for ripening. Winter wheat is sown in late-September, and spring wheat along with other crops.
OATS: A hardy crop that produces high-protein grain. Thrives in a cool, moist climate and cannot tolerate drought. Sown as a spring crop and harvested into shocks and left to dry on the field.
RYE: Can be used for green manure and as a cover crop, as well as a grain for making bread and feeding farm animals. Sown in the fall, this crop does well in poorer soil and tolerates cold, drought and dampness.
BUCKWHEAT: This crop prefers moist, acid soil and hot weather. Matures rapidly (60 to 90 days) and can be sown in the same plot as winter wheat once the wheat is harvested.
BARLEY: Requires a long, cool ripening season and moderate moisture. Plant in early spring. Excellent dietary staple for humans and farm animals.
CORN: Many varieties of corn exist, though generally corn for eating fresh is of the sweet variety while “field corn” used for making flour is not sweet. Ready for harvest after the plants are dead and dry. Ears of corn should be husked and stored away from rain and mold immediately.
HARVESTING WHOLE GRAINS
After the grain has been cut, gather the stalks into sheaves and stack them to dry in the field, in groups of 3 sheaves leaning against each other vertically, until no trace of green is left.
To thresh the grain (remove grains from stalks), lay the sheaves on a sheet over a hard surface and hit the seed heads with a stick to knock the seeds loose. To separate the grain from the chaff (outer husk), toss the grains up in the sheet on a breezy day, or pour grain and chaff back and forth from one container to another on a breezy day, as the wind will blow the chaff away but let the grain fall.
Store grain in a covered metal container, or wooden bin that as been rat proofed with wire mesh (scavenged or reclaimed). Stored grain must be kept thoroughly dry to prevent mold.
1:d,vii) MASTER CHARTS
BC = broadcast (scattered)
HEMP CULTIVATION
Hemp is a cannabis plant from the same family as marijuana, and as such there were once laws in place that forbade the production of both plants. Now, the many benefits of producing hemp have been recognized by the authorities and it is now encouraged to produce due to its many values. As well, the myth that hemp was an intoxicant has been debunked, the THC levels in industrial hemp are so low that no one could get high from smoking it. Moreover, hemp contains a relatively high percentage of another cannabinoid, CBD, that actually blocks a marijuana high. Therefore hemp has come to be known as "antimarijuana."
Hemp is one of the most versatile plants know to humankind. Its fibers can be used for textiles, rope and paper. Its seeds are an extremely healthful food in whole form or as a naturally omega-rich unsaturated oil, which can also be used as fuel in oil-burning lamps or stoves. One hectare of seed hemp produces 1000 to 1500 liters of hemp oil plus several thousand kilos of fiber. Hemp plants are easy to grow and can generally follow the same guides as used for the sesame plant.
NOTE: It is strongly advised to refrain from cultivating marijuana plants as these are still outlawed. The discovery of any marijuana grow operations can result in a seisure of property and land which would have detrimental effects if it is also land being used for vital food production.
Read the next section, Composting...
Composting
Composting is the process of recycling natural materials by decomposition. This is an imperative process for several reasons. One is that it enriches soil for growing food by adding essential nutrients that might otherwise be absent from the soil. Another is that there is no place for waste in the closed system of our city, and is an important part of Toronto’s need for sustainability and zero waste. The most efficient way to produce compost is in a bin or container to keep the material from spilling out, while piling vertically to an ideal height of 4 feet.
1:e:ii) LAYERS AND METHODS
Compost is created by combining dry vegetation (such as grass, dead leaves, etc) and green vegetation (raw or cooked food scraps). By adding soil to this mixture, the composting process is boosted, following this ratio (by weight):
2 parts dry vegetation + 2 parts green vegetation + 1 part soil
Compost builds up in layers in the following order:
5th LAYER & UP: repeat 2nd, 3rd and 4th layers upward
4th LAYER: 2-3” soil (can include manure, animal droppings, feathers, hair, dried blood)
3rd LAYER: 3-6” green vegetation
2nd LAYER: 3-6” dry vegetation
1st LAYER: 2-3” coarse material (cornstalks, twigs, straw, or sawdust)
GROUND LEVEL: loosened soil
To have dry and green vegetation available uncombined, use large outdoor containers to store accumulating dry vegetation, while green vegetation can be collected from kitchens or stored outdoors until needed.
As each layer is added, water it thoroughly so the pile is evenly moist — like a wrung-out damp sponge that does not give excess water when squeezed. Water the surface of the compost pile whenever the farm garden is watered. On rainy days it may be necessary to cover the compost pile to prevent drowning the microbes that decompose the vegetation.
The compost pile should be turned once a week to aerate it, which speeds decomposition, combats odour, and mixes the material so that it will decay at a uniform rate. Compost is ready when material has turned brown and crumbly and gives off no heat or odour.
1:e:ii) LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURES
Compost piles can be a pit in the ground or a pile above the ground. Above ground is preferable, and no special structures are needed although a large wire mesh pen will help keep the pile from spilling over and can help deter rodents (see graphic below). Using wooden stakes driven into the ground at regular intervals, nail or staple a wire mesh all the way around, preferably finding a weave that is too small for rats to crawl through.
The location of the pile is best under trees, especially oaks, otherwise other deciduous trees work well. In the absence of trees, select areas that are shady and protected from wind, as sun and wind dry out the moist piles.
Read the next section, Seeds...
1:e:ii) LAYERS AND METHODS
Compost is created by combining dry vegetation (such as grass, dead leaves, etc) and green vegetation (raw or cooked food scraps). By adding soil to this mixture, the composting process is boosted, following this ratio (by weight):
2 parts dry vegetation + 2 parts green vegetation + 1 part soil
Compost builds up in layers in the following order:
5th LAYER & UP: repeat 2nd, 3rd and 4th layers upward
4th LAYER: 2-3” soil (can include manure, animal droppings, feathers, hair, dried blood)
3rd LAYER: 3-6” green vegetation
2nd LAYER: 3-6” dry vegetation
1st LAYER: 2-3” coarse material (cornstalks, twigs, straw, or sawdust)
GROUND LEVEL: loosened soil
To have dry and green vegetation available uncombined, use large outdoor containers to store accumulating dry vegetation, while green vegetation can be collected from kitchens or stored outdoors until needed.
As each layer is added, water it thoroughly so the pile is evenly moist — like a wrung-out damp sponge that does not give excess water when squeezed. Water the surface of the compost pile whenever the farm garden is watered. On rainy days it may be necessary to cover the compost pile to prevent drowning the microbes that decompose the vegetation.
The compost pile should be turned once a week to aerate it, which speeds decomposition, combats odour, and mixes the material so that it will decay at a uniform rate. Compost is ready when material has turned brown and crumbly and gives off no heat or odour.
1:e:ii) LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURES
Compost piles can be a pit in the ground or a pile above the ground. Above ground is preferable, and no special structures are needed although a large wire mesh pen will help keep the pile from spilling over and can help deter rodents (see graphic below). Using wooden stakes driven into the ground at regular intervals, nail or staple a wire mesh all the way around, preferably finding a weave that is too small for rats to crawl through. The location of the pile is best under trees, especially oaks, otherwise other deciduous trees work well. In the absence of trees, select areas that are shady and protected from wind, as sun and wind dry out the moist piles.
Read the next section, Seeds...
Seeds
Saving seeds each season is vital to continuing food production from year to year. In 2012 the Toronto Seed Bank was founded to properly store all non-genetically modified food and medicinal plant seeds, and has since set up storage and distribution sites throughout the city for community use. Information on TSB locations is available at every neighbourhood communication center (see section 8:a:i). Some herbs and vegetables, including potatoes and rhubarb, reproduce from propagation instead of from seeds, and plants grown from seed vary greatly in method of seed saving. Following are some basic guidelines.
1:f:i) COLLECTING & SAVING SEEDS
After the first crop, hold back part of the crop for seed. Be sure the seed is well matured, whole, healthy and young.
Fruited plants such as melons, tomatoes, green peppers and eggplant make their seeds inside the fruit. Allow the seed-bearing fruit get fully ripe, then scoop out the seeds and let them dry in open air, spread out into a thin layer on cloth or old paper.
Most other vegetables contain their seeds in the flowers. Many plants will only produce flowers if allowed to “go to seed” rather than get harvested earlier on, such as with herbs, lettuce and cruciferous vegetables. Snip off the flower heads and dry the heads. Store in a dry place for winter, and in the spring break apart the head to extract the seeds.
DRYING GRAIN FOR SEED
For seed, the grain should dry in the shock for a month or more before threshing, to ensure it is completely free of moisture. (When stored in a pile, threshed grain that is not totally dry will heat up enough to destroy the seed’s fertility, but is fine for consumption).
SEED STORAGE
Once seeds are completely dry, store in containers that are clearly labeled with which plant the seed will produce. Clear glass jars work well. Seeds must not be heated or come into contact with moisture or strong light.
1:f:ii) SEED PROPAGATION
Vegetative propagation is reproducing plants any way other than by seeds. For multi-stemmed plants, dividing root clumps works well. Dig up a plant that is at least 2 years old and gently divide the roots and their connected stems.
Lemon balm, comfrey, mint and horseradish are some of the herbs that are propagated by root cuttings. Take a plant that is at least 2 years old and cut off a piece of root at least 2 inches in length.
With some shrubs, including rosemary, you can bend a branch over and cover in the middle with a layer of dirt. The covered area will eventually grow roots. When the extended plant is established it can be cut away and replanted elsewhere.
Tubers, including potatoes, send up stalks and grow flowers, but to propagate the plant it is necessary to use the actual root vegetable. For example, take a potato from a harvest and either plant it entirely in the ground, or cut into pieces — making sure each piece contains at least one eye — and plant each piece in the ground. From every eye a new plant grows.
Read the next section, Livestock & Urban Barn Conversions...
1:f:i) COLLECTING & SAVING SEEDS
After the first crop, hold back part of the crop for seed. Be sure the seed is well matured, whole, healthy and young.
Fruited plants such as melons, tomatoes, green peppers and eggplant make their seeds inside the fruit. Allow the seed-bearing fruit get fully ripe, then scoop out the seeds and let them dry in open air, spread out into a thin layer on cloth or old paper.
Most other vegetables contain their seeds in the flowers. Many plants will only produce flowers if allowed to “go to seed” rather than get harvested earlier on, such as with herbs, lettuce and cruciferous vegetables. Snip off the flower heads and dry the heads. Store in a dry place for winter, and in the spring break apart the head to extract the seeds.
DRYING GRAIN FOR SEED
For seed, the grain should dry in the shock for a month or more before threshing, to ensure it is completely free of moisture. (When stored in a pile, threshed grain that is not totally dry will heat up enough to destroy the seed’s fertility, but is fine for consumption).
SEED STORAGE
Once seeds are completely dry, store in containers that are clearly labeled with which plant the seed will produce. Clear glass jars work well. Seeds must not be heated or come into contact with moisture or strong light.
1:f:ii) SEED PROPAGATION
Vegetative propagation is reproducing plants any way other than by seeds. For multi-stemmed plants, dividing root clumps works well. Dig up a plant that is at least 2 years old and gently divide the roots and their connected stems.
Lemon balm, comfrey, mint and horseradish are some of the herbs that are propagated by root cuttings. Take a plant that is at least 2 years old and cut off a piece of root at least 2 inches in length.
With some shrubs, including rosemary, you can bend a branch over and cover in the middle with a layer of dirt. The covered area will eventually grow roots. When the extended plant is established it can be cut away and replanted elsewhere.
Tubers, including potatoes, send up stalks and grow flowers, but to propagate the plant it is necessary to use the actual root vegetable. For example, take a potato from a harvest and either plant it entirely in the ground, or cut into pieces — making sure each piece contains at least one eye — and plant each piece in the ground. From every eye a new plant grows.
Read the next section, Livestock & Urban Barn Conversions...
Livestock & Urban Barn Conversions
Aside from the abattoirs, large-scale livestock raising is foreign to an urban center like downtown Toronto. There are no barns available so existing buildings will need to be converted into barns to raise livestock in large enough quantities to supply the general population. Building new structures is unwise because of our very limited resources, although in some cases it may be necessary to dismantle existing building structures to re-use materials in building new structures (as in the case of building outhouse privies, which can’t be converted from existing structures and need to be built in specific locations).
1:g:i) ADAPTING EXISTING STRUCTURES FOR LIVESTOCK
LARGE WAREHOUSES
Throughout the city there are abandoned warehouses at street level with very high ceilings and plenty of floor space. Despite the possibility of using these buildings as large-scale barns, it is not recommended to raise livestock on such a large scale because of the tendency for disease coupled with high levels of stress of the animals when dwelling in large, impersonal and less natural environments. Instead, these warehouses will make excellent storage facilities for grains and legumes, as well as other preservable foods.
Below is a list of addresses of empty buildings to potentially convert into storage warehouses. The buildings should not have used toxic substances while in operation (ie. auto body shops are unusable due to residual grease, oil, fumes and other industrial chemicals used and spilled on surfaces), and should be able to ventilate properly through windows or vents. Insulation is not important as cold temperatures help preserve foods, and good ventilation along with natural darkness and high ceilings will help keep cool in the hotter weather.
SMALL STRUCTURES
The key to housing livestock in the city is to convert the many thousand wooden structures in the city into coops and barns, using especially old sheds and garages found in most alleys throughout Toronto. Wooden structures are more breathable than more recent cinderblock and brick construction, and can be easily modified to suit the new animal tenants.
Several elements of these existing structures will need to be altered to suit the various livestock. The main common element is the need for proper ventilation, as all livestock requires fresh air and good circulation all year round. Another necessity is for the barn to be adjacent to a pasture or “run” area for the animals to roam free and forage for food. Some animals require little space, like chickens, but others require a much larger area, like sheep.
For large pasture lands connected to shed barns, look to areas like Trinity Bellwoods Park. On the northern edge, at Dundas St. West near Beatrice Ave., is a row of houses with the rears composed of sheds and garages at the laneway between the houses and the start of the park. This setup is an ideal model of many acres of pasture land with access to barn structures to house the animals at night and over winter.
To see how to convert various structures into barns and coops, see the shelter requirements for each type of livestock in the sections that follow to help assess the adaptabilities of neighbourhood structures.
1:g:ii) RAISING POULTRY FOR EGGS AND MEAT
Chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys are all poultry suitable for raising, though the most resourceful of these is chickens. Their meat is lean, their eggs are edible, their bones are good for soup and then can be ground for compost, and their feathers can be used for stuffing clothing and bedding.
There are three kinds of chickens: “egg” birds, “meat” birds, and “dual-purpose” birds. The best choice is the dual-purpose bird which will produce eggs for many years and then slaughtered for eating. Types of dual-purpose birds include Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire, and Wyandotte. Plymouth Rock birds are a good choice for superior meat quality and good egg production.
Birds will need to be sourced from chicken farmers outside of the city, so a convoy of transporters will need to travel to a local farm to fetch mature birds and some roosters to breed with chickens and produce fertile eggs. See section 7:a for transportation and trailer options.
HOUSING
Unlike mammals, chickens need a special kind of barn called “coops.” Requirements for a good coop are:
- adequate floor space (3 or more square feet per bird to reduce incidence of disease and stress)
- good ventilation, no drafts
- adequate natural lighting
- safety from predators
There are numerous shacks, old wooden garages, and tool sheds in alleys throughout the city that will make perfect chicken coops with very little alteration. Choose structures that face the sun, generally pointing south. Windows will be needed (and can be installed if missing), at least 1 square foot of window space for every 10 feet of floor space. Proper ventilation is also needed due to the high moisture given off by chickens (screened windows are fine). For this, install screened vents along the eaves of the roofline that can be closed off during very cold weather.
To protect from predators, make sure the chickens are in the coop by evening and lock the door and other openings. Chicken wire is a good barrier for openings with no screen. During the day there are few predators, but it helps if there are people checking up on the flock regularly.
For flooring, spread a 6- to 8-inch thick layer of sawdust, peat moss, straw or ground corncobs along the entire surface. Stir up the flooring periodically, removing soggy spots, and adding more litter every month. Sprinkle some feed on the littler to encourage the hens to stir up and aerate the litter. Once a year in the springtime, clean out all the litter from the coop (it will have built up to around 2 feet in depth) and add straight to farm earth, as it makes an excellent fertilizer with the large amounts of guano built up in it.
The coop will require roosts, located away from windows and drafts, allowing 1 foot of space per bird. Using long, round beams of 1” or 2” diameter, place each roost 2 feet up from the ground and 1 foot between each roost.
NEST BOXES
As well as roosts, the coop will require nest boxes to be built in, one box for every 4 hens. Place them in a draft-free area at the back of the coop away from the front door. Make the boxes 14 inches square and 1 foot deep , filled with wood shavings or straw (to be changed frequently to prevent soiled eggs) and with a little roof overhead to make the chickens feel safe and deter roosting on the box edge. These should be about 2 feet from the floor with a little landing dowel in front for chickens to land on as they fly up to make their way into the next boxes.
CHICKEN RUN
Aside from the coop, where the chickens go to sleep, rest, and lay their eggs, they will require a large natural area, or chicken run, connected to the coop for them to run free and feed. A run is like a pen made with 6 to 10 foot high fences made of chicken wire closing in the entire outdoor area to prevent predators from entering or chickens from escaping. Bury the bottom edge of the wire to keep digging predators out.
FOOD
Chickens can get up to 50% of their food supply by pecking on grass, bugs, grit, and other critters when ranging free in their outdoor pen. Always have a pan of fresh water available, elevated a little to avoid getting litter kicked into it.
There are 2 kinds of feed that is appropriate for hens: scratch feed (dry) and a mash mix (wet). Below are some formulas for each, to be measured by weight.
SCRATCH FEED:
Combine ingredients in a sack or pail and scatter on the ground for pecking.
50% Wheat
50% Yellow corn or Oats
(supplement with some sunflower seeds or flax seeds)
MASH MIX (in lbs per 100)
Grind all ingredients into a pulp and store in covered buckets.
60 lbs Yellow corn meal
15 lbs Wheat middlings
8 lbs soybean meal (hulled)
6.5 lbs ground limestone
4 lbs fish meal
2.5 lbs alfalfa leaf meal
2.5 lbs powdered milk
1 lb bone meal
0.5 lbs iodized salt if available
For indoor feeding, build a small trough that is narrow and long enough to accommodate 4” of space per hen for each side of the trough. Cover with chicken wire to discourage birds from scratching in the feed and soiling it. Clean water must be available at all times (elevated to avoid getting litter kicked into it) and cannot be allowed to freeze in the winter. Lack of water will drastically reduce egg production. Chickens also like milk and any vegetable or grain food scraps.
PREDATORS
Rats and mice can be a great nuisance as they love chicken feed. Keep the feed in rat-proof containers. Set out rat traps and keep cats (but protect chicks from cats). Keep dogs clear away from the henhouse or the chicken run outdoors as they love to chase and terrorize the birds. City animals that eat chickens include skunks and raccoons, and more remote animals include owls, hawks, foxes and weasels.
BUTCHERING
When deciding to butcher a bird, choose one between 3 1/2 to 5 lbs in weight, and deprive it of food, but not water, for 12 hours. Watch the roosters when stalking and catching a hen, as they will attack if harm comes to a member of the harem. Once the bird is caught, hold the bird by the legs and tie the feet together. Have a sharp axe and a chopping block (a stump works well) with 2 nails driven in and sticking up 2 inches parallel to each other and about 1 inch apart. Insert the chicken’s head between the two nails and slide the body down (the beak will stop the head and the neck will stretch). After chopping off the head, hang the bird upside-down immediately and let it bleed out completely, for about 10 minutes, then pluck off the feathers. The chicken will flap about for a while before its death.
PLUCKING
Bring a large pot of water to boil and dip the freshly-beheaded bird in the hot water for half a minute (no longer than 60 seconds). Pluck the wings first, then the breast, body, back, legs, and finally the neck. Collect the feathers in a cloth bag. Finish off the small feathers and hair by singeing with a candle flame.
RAISING DUCKS FOR EGGS, MEAT AND DOWN
Ducks are extremely hardy and will forage for most of the food they need. What they need most is lots of open space, about 1 grassy acre for every 20 birds. To prevent overgrazing, divide the area into three sections and shift the birds from one to the other as the supply of grass dwindles. Always have plenty of fresh drinking water available, in troughs deep enough for them to submerge their entire bills. They can eat the same feed as chicken scratch (mash is not as good) as well as scrap vegetables.
There is no such thing as a dual-purpose duck; good egg layers do not produce the best meat, and good meat birds will supply very few eggs. Duck eggs have a gamier flavour than chicken eggs so these are best for baking. Meat birds will grow to 8 lbs (butchering weight) in 8-10 weeks.
Housing is similar for ducks as for chickens, but ducks do not roost so no roost beams need to be installed. They need to be weather-proof and predator-proof, and kept scrupulously clean. Ducks like to swim and bathe so it’s helpful to provide a source of bathing water that is clean and not stagnated. If no natural pond is available, old bathtubs work well but the water needs to be changed frequently to prevent disease.
Nest boxes for ducks is as for chickens but larger (15” square and 18” deep) and without a little roof. These nest boxes can be set on the floor and filled with similar material as the chickens’.
1:g:iii) RAISING RABBITS FOR MEAT AND FUR
Rabbits are prolific and hardy and produce an excellent source of protein as well as fur. Rabbits are the most efficient animal to raise due to the low amount of food and care required with respect to the amount of meat they produce.
FOOD
Rabbits should eat tender hay, fresh grass clippings and vegetable tops, as well as root vegetables, apples, pears, and fruit tree leaves. Plenty of fresh water changed daily is essential. Rabbits under 6 months of age should not eat much fresh greens at all.
MATING
Rabbits are fertile almost non-stop after 6 months of age. When it’s time to breed, place a female rabbit in a male rabbit’s cage (but not the other way around as female rabbits are fiercely territorial). If mating does not take place almost immediately, remove the female rabbit and try again a few days later. Check for pregnancy after 10 days by pressing the area just above the pelvis to locate small marble-sized embryos. If there are none, check one week later and rebreed if necessary. Birth occurs 31 days after conception. 5 days before the young are due, prepare a nesting box with a good supply of straw in the bottom and place in the doe’s hutch. As soon as the young are born, feed the doe high-protein food.
HOUSING
Each rabbit should have its own cage in a hutch set-up that protects from drafts, rain, heat and predators. Each cage should be 3 feet wide by 3 feet deep and 2 feet high with mesh walls and floors. The roof should be wood and the hutch should be placed in a shady spot.
BUTCHERING
When rabbits are 8 to 12 weeks old they are ready to be butchered, at about 4 lbs in weight. For 24 hours before butchering, do not feed the rabbit, but do provide water. To kill it, hold it upside-down by the feet and administer a sharp blow directly behind its ears, using a heavy pipe or piece of wood. Immediately hang it by the feet, cut off the head and let the blood drain out. Next, cut off the feet, then slit the skin along the back legs and center of the belly. Pull the skin back, like removing a tight glove, from the thighs towards the front legs in one piece. Carefully remove the insides, saving the liver, heart and kidneys for human consumption and the rest can be fed to dogs.
1:g:iv) GOATS FOR MILK AND MEAT
Goats are idea dairy animals due to their excellent foraging ability, moderate milk production, and nutritionally superior milk which is naturally homogenized and easily digested by humans. It’s best to keep males and females separate and only mix for breeding purposes.
FOOD
Good-quality forage is all the food non-milking goats require, including a variety of leaves, branches, weeds, grasses, as well as legumes for protein. Supplement with well-cured hay in the winter. Milking does require additional protein in their diet through mixed grains of corn, oats, wheat bran and soybean oil meal. Be very careful not to overfeed grains to goats as it can cause bloat, a potentially deadly buildup of gases in the intestines. To prevent overeating of grains, only feed the grain after they’ve eaten plenty of grasses or hay. Keep a regular feeding schedule and make any dietary changes gradually. Plenty of fresh, clean water is important, especially for milking does.
HOUSING
A goat barn requires being draft free and well-bedded, with access to a fenced-in outdoor area for browsing and exercise. This outdoor area should have good drainage to prevent foot rot, and have access to shade and temporary shelter in case of wind and rain. Rocks, boulders and various structures provide exercise for jumping and climbing.
BREEDING AND MILKING
When does reach 18 months of age they should be bred once a year to ensure a continuous supply of milk. Breeding season begins in the fall and lasts through early spring. Signs of does coming into their 2-day-long heat (every 3 weeks) include restlessness, tail twitching, and bleating. Pregnancy lasts 5 months, and when the young are about to be born the does will have engorged udders, reduced feeding, more bleating, and white vaginal discharge.
Newborn kids must receive colostrum, the doe’s antibody-rich first milk. After that they should be separated from their mother and fed from a pan or bottle. Feed them 1/2 to 1/3 pint of milk three times daily for the first two weeks. Then gradually reduce the amount of milk and substitute grain and fresh green hay. Milk the goat for 6 months after giving birth, then it’s time to rebreed, at which point you can continue to milk for three more months but then allow the doe to dry off by stopping the daily milkings to give her a rest.
Milk at 12-hour intervals making sure the atmosphere calm and the doe is settled. Walk her onto a milking stand (low table) placing the head in a stanchion, where a bucket of grain should be waiting. Wipe the udder with a warm, moist cloth to clean the area and relaxes the muscles. Milk each teat alternately; when milk flow stops, gently massage the udder from top to bottom to stimulate flow, and milk again.
Cleanliness is essential for hygienic and good-tasting milk production. Keep the milking station away from feeding and bedding areas in the barn, keep the hairs around the udder clipped short, and keep the doe’s coat free of dirt by frequent brushing, as well as having the milker’s hands washed thoroughly.
1:g:v) SHEEP FOR MILK, MEAT AND WOOL
Sheep are easy to raise because of their gentle disposition, minimal shelter needs, and they graze for almost all of their food.
SHEARING
Springtime is sheep shearing time. Using hand shears, cut close to the skin and remov the entire fleece in one piece. Going back over previously clipped areas is not desireable as it produces short, unuseable fibres. The animal is held in place with the shearer's legs and knees. Shear in the order shown in the illustrations.
FOOD
Sheep can get all the nutrients they need from good-quality pasturage (grasses). Supplement with 1 pound of grains per day per sheep – such as oats, corn and wheat -- and unlimited hay in the winter season, making any dietary changes extremely gradual so as to avoid developing bloat, which can be deadly. In winter, always feed at the same times each day, once in the morning and once in the evening. Always provide plenty of fresh, clean water, plus a salt lick. Salt licks provided in the springtime assist in animal bone and muscle growth. To make a salt lick, make a depression in the ground around 5 feet in diameter, clearing it of
vegetation and debris. Spread approximately 30 pounds of salt on the ground, mixing in a small amount of the removed soil. Note that the creation and use of salt licks will depend on the amount of mineral salt available which is extremely limited.
One acre of pasture land containing equal parts tender grass and legumes will feed 4 sheep in one summer. To keep the land regenerating, rotate the grazing area 1/3 acre at a time, moving the sheep when the sheep have cropped the tops off the plants. Wait until mid- or late-spring before letting the sheep graze to give greens the chance to grow.
Fences are required around the pasturage, to keep out predators as much as to keep sheep in. Fences should be 4 feet high, made of medium weight wire, attached to heavy wooden posts staked 3 feet into the ground and no more than 15 feet apart. For extra security against predators, install a strand of barbed wire on the top and bottom of the wire fence.
HOUSING
Thanks to their thick wool coats, sheep require minimal housing and can thrive in cold weather. A three-sided shed is adequate, having at least 15 square feet of space per sheep. The floor can be dirt or concrete, but not wood, and should be covered with a foot of litter. Sheep manure is dry and can be allowed to accumulate all winter, adding warmth as well. Do change the litter if there are damp or moldy spots, otherwise once a year will do, cleaning and disinfecting the shelter at that time.
1:g:vi) PIGS FOR MEAT AND FAT
Hogs are easy to raise because they will eat almost anything, and are ready for butchering within the year.
FOOD
Pigs can be fed leftover produce, table scraps, or an oversupply of crops or goat’s milk, and are also fine grazing from the pasture. Up to 6 pigs can forage on 1 acre of high-quality pasture including clover, grass and alfalfa. Rotate the pigs on 1/3 or 1/4 of the pasture at a time to allow the field to regenerate. Grains including corn, oats, barley and rye are a good supplement to the pigs’ diet. When feeding leftovers, they must be processed first by picking through the food to remove inedible items, chicken bones and pork scraps. Cook the scraps for 30 minutes to destroy any bacteria.
For each pound of weight gained by a pig, it must eat 3 pounds of feed. A pig is ready for butchering when it reaches a weight of 220 pounds in the fall. Follow the diet described above, feeding 2 to 4 pounds of grain per pig per day, to acquire a good weight gain.
SHELTER
Hogs have a hard time keeping cool, so to provide shelter from the sun while allowing the pigs to roam outside, create a moveable shelter that sits on the field and can be dragged to other areas when the pasture needs to regenerate. It’s best to set the shelter under trees in shaded areas.
Fencing is also necessary to keep the hogs in and predators out. Strong wire fencing is needed for 220 pound hogs, which can bust through weaker structures. One pig needs at least 100 square feet of space for roaming . Set posts 3 feet deep, with a strand of barbed wire 3 inches above the ground so the hogs don’t try to burrow under the wire fence.
Read the next section, Wild Food...
1:g:i) ADAPTING EXISTING STRUCTURES FOR LIVESTOCK
LARGE WAREHOUSES
Throughout the city there are abandoned warehouses at street level with very high ceilings and plenty of floor space. Despite the possibility of using these buildings as large-scale barns, it is not recommended to raise livestock on such a large scale because of the tendency for disease coupled with high levels of stress of the animals when dwelling in large, impersonal and less natural environments. Instead, these warehouses will make excellent storage facilities for grains and legumes, as well as other preservable foods.
Below is a list of addresses of empty buildings to potentially convert into storage warehouses. The buildings should not have used toxic substances while in operation (ie. auto body shops are unusable due to residual grease, oil, fumes and other industrial chemicals used and spilled on surfaces), and should be able to ventilate properly through windows or vents. Insulation is not important as cold temperatures help preserve foods, and good ventilation along with natural darkness and high ceilings will help keep cool in the hotter weather.
SMALL STRUCTURES
The key to housing livestock in the city is to convert the many thousand wooden structures in the city into coops and barns, using especially old sheds and garages found in most alleys throughout Toronto. Wooden structures are more breathable than more recent cinderblock and brick construction, and can be easily modified to suit the new animal tenants.
Several elements of these existing structures will need to be altered to suit the various livestock. The main common element is the need for proper ventilation, as all livestock requires fresh air and good circulation all year round. Another necessity is for the barn to be adjacent to a pasture or “run” area for the animals to roam free and forage for food. Some animals require little space, like chickens, but others require a much larger area, like sheep.
For large pasture lands connected to shed barns, look to areas like Trinity Bellwoods Park. On the northern edge, at Dundas St. West near Beatrice Ave., is a row of houses with the rears composed of sheds and garages at the laneway between the houses and the start of the park. This setup is an ideal model of many acres of pasture land with access to barn structures to house the animals at night and over winter.
To see how to convert various structures into barns and coops, see the shelter requirements for each type of livestock in the sections that follow to help assess the adaptabilities of neighbourhood structures.
1:g:ii) RAISING POULTRY FOR EGGS AND MEAT
Chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys are all poultry suitable for raising, though the most resourceful of these is chickens. Their meat is lean, their eggs are edible, their bones are good for soup and then can be ground for compost, and their feathers can be used for stuffing clothing and bedding.
There are three kinds of chickens: “egg” birds, “meat” birds, and “dual-purpose” birds. The best choice is the dual-purpose bird which will produce eggs for many years and then slaughtered for eating. Types of dual-purpose birds include Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire, and Wyandotte. Plymouth Rock birds are a good choice for superior meat quality and good egg production.
Birds will need to be sourced from chicken farmers outside of the city, so a convoy of transporters will need to travel to a local farm to fetch mature birds and some roosters to breed with chickens and produce fertile eggs. See section 7:a for transportation and trailer options.
HOUSING
Unlike mammals, chickens need a special kind of barn called “coops.” Requirements for a good coop are:
- adequate floor space (3 or more square feet per bird to reduce incidence of disease and stress)
- good ventilation, no drafts
- adequate natural lighting
- safety from predators
There are numerous shacks, old wooden garages, and tool sheds in alleys throughout the city that will make perfect chicken coops with very little alteration. Choose structures that face the sun, generally pointing south. Windows will be needed (and can be installed if missing), at least 1 square foot of window space for every 10 feet of floor space. Proper ventilation is also needed due to the high moisture given off by chickens (screened windows are fine). For this, install screened vents along the eaves of the roofline that can be closed off during very cold weather.
To protect from predators, make sure the chickens are in the coop by evening and lock the door and other openings. Chicken wire is a good barrier for openings with no screen. During the day there are few predators, but it helps if there are people checking up on the flock regularly.
For flooring, spread a 6- to 8-inch thick layer of sawdust, peat moss, straw or ground corncobs along the entire surface. Stir up the flooring periodically, removing soggy spots, and adding more litter every month. Sprinkle some feed on the littler to encourage the hens to stir up and aerate the litter. Once a year in the springtime, clean out all the litter from the coop (it will have built up to around 2 feet in depth) and add straight to farm earth, as it makes an excellent fertilizer with the large amounts of guano built up in it.
The coop will require roosts, located away from windows and drafts, allowing 1 foot of space per bird. Using long, round beams of 1” or 2” diameter, place each roost 2 feet up from the ground and 1 foot between each roost.
NEST BOXESAs well as roosts, the coop will require nest boxes to be built in, one box for every 4 hens. Place them in a draft-free area at the back of the coop away from the front door. Make the boxes 14 inches square and 1 foot deep , filled with wood shavings or straw (to be changed frequently to prevent soiled eggs) and with a little roof overhead to make the chickens feel safe and deter roosting on the box edge. These should be about 2 feet from the floor with a little landing dowel in front for chickens to land on as they fly up to make their way into the next boxes.
CHICKEN RUNAside from the coop, where the chickens go to sleep, rest, and lay their eggs, they will require a large natural area, or chicken run, connected to the coop for them to run free and feed. A run is like a pen made with 6 to 10 foot high fences made of chicken wire closing in the entire outdoor area to prevent predators from entering or chickens from escaping. Bury the bottom edge of the wire to keep digging predators out.
FOOD
Chickens can get up to 50% of their food supply by pecking on grass, bugs, grit, and other critters when ranging free in their outdoor pen. Always have a pan of fresh water available, elevated a little to avoid getting litter kicked into it.
There are 2 kinds of feed that is appropriate for hens: scratch feed (dry) and a mash mix (wet). Below are some formulas for each, to be measured by weight.
SCRATCH FEED:
Combine ingredients in a sack or pail and scatter on the ground for pecking.
50% Wheat
50% Yellow corn or Oats
(supplement with some sunflower seeds or flax seeds)
MASH MIX (in lbs per 100)
Grind all ingredients into a pulp and store in covered buckets.
60 lbs Yellow corn meal
15 lbs Wheat middlings
8 lbs soybean meal (hulled)
6.5 lbs ground limestone
4 lbs fish meal
2.5 lbs alfalfa leaf meal
2.5 lbs powdered milk
1 lb bone meal
0.5 lbs iodized salt if available
For indoor feeding, build a small trough that is narrow and long enough to accommodate 4” of space per hen for each side of the trough. Cover with chicken wire to discourage birds from scratching in the feed and soiling it. Clean water must be available at all times (elevated to avoid getting litter kicked into it) and cannot be allowed to freeze in the winter. Lack of water will drastically reduce egg production. Chickens also like milk and any vegetable or grain food scraps.
PREDATORS
Rats and mice can be a great nuisance as they love chicken feed. Keep the feed in rat-proof containers. Set out rat traps and keep cats (but protect chicks from cats). Keep dogs clear away from the henhouse or the chicken run outdoors as they love to chase and terrorize the birds. City animals that eat chickens include skunks and raccoons, and more remote animals include owls, hawks, foxes and weasels.
BUTCHERING
When deciding to butcher a bird, choose one between 3 1/2 to 5 lbs in weight, and deprive it of food, but not water, for 12 hours. Watch the roosters when stalking and catching a hen, as they will attack if harm comes to a member of the harem. Once the bird is caught, hold the bird by the legs and tie the feet together. Have a sharp axe and a chopping block (a stump works well) with 2 nails driven in and sticking up 2 inches parallel to each other and about 1 inch apart. Insert the chicken’s head between the two nails and slide the body down (the beak will stop the head and the neck will stretch). After chopping off the head, hang the bird upside-down immediately and let it bleed out completely, for about 10 minutes, then pluck off the feathers. The chicken will flap about for a while before its death.
PLUCKING
Bring a large pot of water to boil and dip the freshly-beheaded bird in the hot water for half a minute (no longer than 60 seconds). Pluck the wings first, then the breast, body, back, legs, and finally the neck. Collect the feathers in a cloth bag. Finish off the small feathers and hair by singeing with a candle flame.
RAISING DUCKS FOR EGGS, MEAT AND DOWN
Ducks are extremely hardy and will forage for most of the food they need. What they need most is lots of open space, about 1 grassy acre for every 20 birds. To prevent overgrazing, divide the area into three sections and shift the birds from one to the other as the supply of grass dwindles. Always have plenty of fresh drinking water available, in troughs deep enough for them to submerge their entire bills. They can eat the same feed as chicken scratch (mash is not as good) as well as scrap vegetables.
There is no such thing as a dual-purpose duck; good egg layers do not produce the best meat, and good meat birds will supply very few eggs. Duck eggs have a gamier flavour than chicken eggs so these are best for baking. Meat birds will grow to 8 lbs (butchering weight) in 8-10 weeks.
Housing is similar for ducks as for chickens, but ducks do not roost so no roost beams need to be installed. They need to be weather-proof and predator-proof, and kept scrupulously clean. Ducks like to swim and bathe so it’s helpful to provide a source of bathing water that is clean and not stagnated. If no natural pond is available, old bathtubs work well but the water needs to be changed frequently to prevent disease.
Nest boxes for ducks is as for chickens but larger (15” square and 18” deep) and without a little roof. These nest boxes can be set on the floor and filled with similar material as the chickens’.
1:g:iii) RAISING RABBITS FOR MEAT AND FUR
Rabbits are prolific and hardy and produce an excellent source of protein as well as fur. Rabbits are the most efficient animal to raise due to the low amount of food and care required with respect to the amount of meat they produce.
FOOD
Rabbits should eat tender hay, fresh grass clippings and vegetable tops, as well as root vegetables, apples, pears, and fruit tree leaves. Plenty of fresh water changed daily is essential. Rabbits under 6 months of age should not eat much fresh greens at all.
MATING
Rabbits are fertile almost non-stop after 6 months of age. When it’s time to breed, place a female rabbit in a male rabbit’s cage (but not the other way around as female rabbits are fiercely territorial). If mating does not take place almost immediately, remove the female rabbit and try again a few days later. Check for pregnancy after 10 days by pressing the area just above the pelvis to locate small marble-sized embryos. If there are none, check one week later and rebreed if necessary. Birth occurs 31 days after conception. 5 days before the young are due, prepare a nesting box with a good supply of straw in the bottom and place in the doe’s hutch. As soon as the young are born, feed the doe high-protein food.
HOUSING
Each rabbit should have its own cage in a hutch set-up that protects from drafts, rain, heat and predators. Each cage should be 3 feet wide by 3 feet deep and 2 feet high with mesh walls and floors. The roof should be wood and the hutch should be placed in a shady spot.
BUTCHERING
When rabbits are 8 to 12 weeks old they are ready to be butchered, at about 4 lbs in weight. For 24 hours before butchering, do not feed the rabbit, but do provide water. To kill it, hold it upside-down by the feet and administer a sharp blow directly behind its ears, using a heavy pipe or piece of wood. Immediately hang it by the feet, cut off the head and let the blood drain out. Next, cut off the feet, then slit the skin along the back legs and center of the belly. Pull the skin back, like removing a tight glove, from the thighs towards the front legs in one piece. Carefully remove the insides, saving the liver, heart and kidneys for human consumption and the rest can be fed to dogs.
1:g:iv) GOATS FOR MILK AND MEAT
Goats are idea dairy animals due to their excellent foraging ability, moderate milk production, and nutritionally superior milk which is naturally homogenized and easily digested by humans. It’s best to keep males and females separate and only mix for breeding purposes.
FOOD
Good-quality forage is all the food non-milking goats require, including a variety of leaves, branches, weeds, grasses, as well as legumes for protein. Supplement with well-cured hay in the winter. Milking does require additional protein in their diet through mixed grains of corn, oats, wheat bran and soybean oil meal. Be very careful not to overfeed grains to goats as it can cause bloat, a potentially deadly buildup of gases in the intestines. To prevent overeating of grains, only feed the grain after they’ve eaten plenty of grasses or hay. Keep a regular feeding schedule and make any dietary changes gradually. Plenty of fresh, clean water is important, especially for milking does.
HOUSING
A goat barn requires being draft free and well-bedded, with access to a fenced-in outdoor area for browsing and exercise. This outdoor area should have good drainage to prevent foot rot, and have access to shade and temporary shelter in case of wind and rain. Rocks, boulders and various structures provide exercise for jumping and climbing.
BREEDING AND MILKING
When does reach 18 months of age they should be bred once a year to ensure a continuous supply of milk. Breeding season begins in the fall and lasts through early spring. Signs of does coming into their 2-day-long heat (every 3 weeks) include restlessness, tail twitching, and bleating. Pregnancy lasts 5 months, and when the young are about to be born the does will have engorged udders, reduced feeding, more bleating, and white vaginal discharge.
Newborn kids must receive colostrum, the doe’s antibody-rich first milk. After that they should be separated from their mother and fed from a pan or bottle. Feed them 1/2 to 1/3 pint of milk three times daily for the first two weeks. Then gradually reduce the amount of milk and substitute grain and fresh green hay. Milk the goat for 6 months after giving birth, then it’s time to rebreed, at which point you can continue to milk for three more months but then allow the doe to dry off by stopping the daily milkings to give her a rest.
Milk at 12-hour intervals making sure the atmosphere calm and the doe is settled. Walk her onto a milking stand (low table) placing the head in a stanchion, where a bucket of grain should be waiting. Wipe the udder with a warm, moist cloth to clean the area and relaxes the muscles. Milk each teat alternately; when milk flow stops, gently massage the udder from top to bottom to stimulate flow, and milk again.
Cleanliness is essential for hygienic and good-tasting milk production. Keep the milking station away from feeding and bedding areas in the barn, keep the hairs around the udder clipped short, and keep the doe’s coat free of dirt by frequent brushing, as well as having the milker’s hands washed thoroughly.
1:g:v) SHEEP FOR MILK, MEAT AND WOOL
Sheep are easy to raise because of their gentle disposition, minimal shelter needs, and they graze for almost all of their food.
SHEARINGSpringtime is sheep shearing time. Using hand shears, cut close to the skin and remov the entire fleece in one piece. Going back over previously clipped areas is not desireable as it produces short, unuseable fibres. The animal is held in place with the shearer's legs and knees. Shear in the order shown in the illustrations.
FOOD
Sheep can get all the nutrients they need from good-quality pasturage (grasses). Supplement with 1 pound of grains per day per sheep – such as oats, corn and wheat -- and unlimited hay in the winter season, making any dietary changes extremely gradual so as to avoid developing bloat, which can be deadly. In winter, always feed at the same times each day, once in the morning and once in the evening. Always provide plenty of fresh, clean water, plus a salt lick. Salt licks provided in the springtime assist in animal bone and muscle growth. To make a salt lick, make a depression in the ground around 5 feet in diameter, clearing it of
vegetation and debris. Spread approximately 30 pounds of salt on the ground, mixing in a small amount of the removed soil. Note that the creation and use of salt licks will depend on the amount of mineral salt available which is extremely limited.One acre of pasture land containing equal parts tender grass and legumes will feed 4 sheep in one summer. To keep the land regenerating, rotate the grazing area 1/3 acre at a time, moving the sheep when the sheep have cropped the tops off the plants. Wait until mid- or late-spring before letting the sheep graze to give greens the chance to grow.
Fences are required around the pasturage, to keep out predators as much as to keep sheep in. Fences should be 4 feet high, made of medium weight wire, attached to heavy wooden posts staked 3 feet into the ground and no more than 15 feet apart. For extra security against predators, install a strand of barbed wire on the top and bottom of the wire fence.
HOUSING
Thanks to their thick wool coats, sheep require minimal housing and can thrive in cold weather. A three-sided shed is adequate, having at least 15 square feet of space per sheep. The floor can be dirt or concrete, but not wood, and should be covered with a foot of litter. Sheep manure is dry and can be allowed to accumulate all winter, adding warmth as well. Do change the litter if there are damp or moldy spots, otherwise once a year will do, cleaning and disinfecting the shelter at that time.
1:g:vi) PIGS FOR MEAT AND FAT
Hogs are easy to raise because they will eat almost anything, and are ready for butchering within the year.
FOOD
Pigs can be fed leftover produce, table scraps, or an oversupply of crops or goat’s milk, and are also fine grazing from the pasture. Up to 6 pigs can forage on 1 acre of high-quality pasture including clover, grass and alfalfa. Rotate the pigs on 1/3 or 1/4 of the pasture at a time to allow the field to regenerate. Grains including corn, oats, barley and rye are a good supplement to the pigs’ diet. When feeding leftovers, they must be processed first by picking through the food to remove inedible items, chicken bones and pork scraps. Cook the scraps for 30 minutes to destroy any bacteria.
For each pound of weight gained by a pig, it must eat 3 pounds of feed. A pig is ready for butchering when it reaches a weight of 220 pounds in the fall. Follow the diet described above, feeding 2 to 4 pounds of grain per pig per day, to acquire a good weight gain.
SHELTER
Hogs have a hard time keeping cool, so to provide shelter from the sun while allowing the pigs to roam outside, create a moveable shelter that sits on the field and can be dragged to other areas when the pasture needs to regenerate. It’s best to set the shelter under trees in shaded areas.Fencing is also necessary to keep the hogs in and predators out. Strong wire fencing is needed for 220 pound hogs, which can bust through weaker structures. One pig needs at least 100 square feet of space for roaming . Set posts 3 feet deep, with a strand of barbed wire 3 inches above the ground so the hogs don’t try to burrow under the wire fence.
Read the next section, Wild Food...
Wild Food
As well as growing and producing food for the city's residents, there are a multitude of wild plants and animals available that grow without cultivation which can supplement the food supply considerably.
1:h:i) Fauna
It is not advisable to eat the fish caught in Lake Ontario or the Don and Humber Rivers due to toxic levels of pollution. Instead there is some game available throughout the city which, properly cooked, will serve as nourishment.
INSECTS, GRUBS AND WORMS: high sources of protein but may contain parasites. Consume by boiling or, for better palatability, finely chop and dry roast, grind to a powder to add to soups. Preferably starve the worms for a day to allow the dirt in their bodies to come out. For snails, starve for several days to remove toxins from their bodies.
ANTS: most ants contain formic acid, cook for at least 6 minutes to destroy the poison.
GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND CICADAS: remove heads, wings and legs before roasting or boiling. Trap by laying a wool blanket at night in a grassy field and gather in the morning.
PIGEONS AND DOVES: wash well and de-feather before cooking thoroughly, either in a fire or soup. Use feathers for filling coats and bedding.
DUCKS AND GEESE: as per poultry. Use feathers for filling coats and bedding.
SQUIRRELS: cleaned, skinned and quartered, good for frying or in stews.
RACCOONS: cleaned, skinned and chopped, good for stews or in a fire. Use pelt for boots, hats and mitts.
FLORA
PINE NEEDLES: boiled into a tea, serves as an excellent source of Vit C to prevent scurvy and boost immunity.
DANDELION: leaves and flowers boiled into a tea is a health-boosting bitter and liver tonic. Fresh leaves, eaten raw or cooked, are also a healthful addition to the diet.
GRASSES: slowly pulling up blade reveals the edible white flesh that is usually just below the surface of the ground. Avoid eating the tough greens and rough edges.
GRASS SEEDS: All grass seeds are edible, but use the Edibility Test on unknown seeds. Discard grains that are blackened or carry black bean-like grains (these are infected and toxic).
ROOTS AND TUBERS: wash and cook all roots and tubers for better digestibility.
TREE BARK: peel off a large section of bark, but do not cut bark from more than halfway around the tree or you might kill the tree. The light-coloured layer of inner bark is the edible portion. Consume raw or cook like spaghetti or dry and grind into a powder. Choose from aspens, birch, slippery elm, maples, tamaracks, spruce and pines.
CHESTNUTS: collect from trees and boil or roast to eat. Can also be dried and ground into flour.
1:h:ii) GUIDE TO EDIBLE & POISONOUS PLANTS & BERRIES
In case of potential food poisoning, follow these steps:
- spit out any part of the plant that is still in the mouth
- do not induce vomiting
- take small sips of clean water
- go immediately to your community’s health station
In case of contact with a poisonous plant:
- wash the skin immediately with soap and lukewarm water
- go immediately to your community’s health station
The following plants are POISONOUS:
A
amaryllis, angel’s trumpet, arrowhead vine, autumn crocus, azalea, apple seeds, apricot seeds
B
bittersweet, black locust, boston ivy
C
caladium, calla lily, castor bean, chinese lantern plant, clematis, cotoneaster, autumn crocus, cyclamen, cherry pits, crabapple seeds
D
daffodil, daisy (chrysanthemum), delphinium, dumb cane
E
elephant’s ear, english ivy, eucalyptus, euonymus
F
foxglove
G
gladiola
H
holly, horse chestnut, hyacinth, hydrangea
I
iris
J
jack-in-the-pulpit, jequirity bean, jerusalem cherry, jimson weed
L
lark, larkspur, lily-of-the-valley, lobelia, lupine
M
milkweed, mistletoe, monkshood, morning glory, mother-in-law plant
N
narcissus, nightshade
O
oleander
P
peony, periwinkle, philodendron, poison ivy, poison oak, pokeweed, potato (greens), pothos, peach pits
R
rhododendron, rhubarb (greens), rosary bean
S
snake berry, snow-on-the-mountain, star of bethlehem, St. John’s Wort
T
tobacco, tomato (greens and whole plant and unripe fruit)
V
virginia creeper
W
water hemlock, wisteria
The following plants are NOT POISONOUS:
A
african violet, alyssum, asparagus fern, astilbe
B
baby’s breath, baby’s tears, bachelors buttons, black-eyed susans, boston fern
C
chinese evergreen, christmas cactus, coleus, coral bells, cosmos, crocus
D
dahlia, dandelion, daylily, dracaena
E
easter lily, evening primrose
F
ficus benjamina, freesia, fuschia
G
gardenia, glosinia, grape hyacinth
H
hens and chicks, hibiscus, hollyhock, honey locust, hoya
I
impatiens
J
jade plant
M
maple (seeds and young leaves), marigold, money plant, mountain ash, mulberry
P
peperomia, persian violet, petunia, phlox, poinsettia, polka-dot plant, portulaca, prayer plant, primrose, purple coneflower
R
rose, rubber plant
S
schefflera, snapdragon, spider plant, spiraea, statice
T
tulip
W
wandering jew, weeping fig, weigela
Y
yucca
Z
zinnia
The following is a guide to reduce chances of mushroom poisoning:
- poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms grow together, and only a mushroom expert (mycologist) can tell the difference
- it is dangerous to eat any mushroom found outdoors
- cooking mushrooms does not make them safe to eat
- consuming even small parts of some mushrooms can cause sickness and death
- after eating a poisonous mushroom, it may take several hours for illness to become evident
- in case of dubious mushroom consumption, go immediately to your community’s health center
- remove all mushrooms growing in the community to prevent accidental consumption by children or adults unaware of the danger of poisoning
1:h:iii) EDIBILITY TEST
When in doubt of whether a plant or berry is edible, take this test without skipping a single step, being patient and thorough. Do not use the edibility test for mushrooms. Mushrooms must be positively identified. Even the smallest amounts of poisonous mushrooms can be lethal. Do not eat plants with milky sap, except for dandelions.
STEP 1: SMELL
Crush part of the plant. If it smells like almonds or peaches do not eat.
STEP 2: SKIN IRRITATION
Crush part of the plant. Rub some of the juice onto the inside of your arm. Reject this plant if you experience any discomfort, rash, swelling or burning.
STEP 3: MOUTH TEST
Only if the test plant passed the first 2 tests, proceed with the mouth test with caution. Spit out and reject the test plant at the first sign of burning, swelling, irritation, nausea, dizziness or stomach ache.
Crush part of the plant and place a small amount of it on your lips for 10 seconds. If no ill effects, place a pea-sized portion in a corner of your mouth for 10 more seconds. Then move it to the tip of your tongue for 10 more seconds. Then move it under your tongue for 10 more seconds. If no ill effects, chew the substance and hold it in your mouth for an entire 15 minutes. Then spit it out and wait 5 hours watching for any ill effects.
STEP 4: FIRST SWALLOW TEST
If no ill effects after 4 hours, chew and swallow one teaspoon-sized bite. Wait 10 hours while fasting – consume no drink or food during this period.
STEP 5: SECOND SWALLOW TEST
If no ill effects after 10 hours, eat about 1/3 cup of this plant. Wait 24 hours. If no ill effects, you may consider this plant non-poisonous.
Read the next section, Beekeeping & Honey Production...
1:h:i) Fauna
It is not advisable to eat the fish caught in Lake Ontario or the Don and Humber Rivers due to toxic levels of pollution. Instead there is some game available throughout the city which, properly cooked, will serve as nourishment.
INSECTS, GRUBS AND WORMS: high sources of protein but may contain parasites. Consume by boiling or, for better palatability, finely chop and dry roast, grind to a powder to add to soups. Preferably starve the worms for a day to allow the dirt in their bodies to come out. For snails, starve for several days to remove toxins from their bodies.
ANTS: most ants contain formic acid, cook for at least 6 minutes to destroy the poison.
GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND CICADAS: remove heads, wings and legs before roasting or boiling. Trap by laying a wool blanket at night in a grassy field and gather in the morning.
PIGEONS AND DOVES: wash well and de-feather before cooking thoroughly, either in a fire or soup. Use feathers for filling coats and bedding.
DUCKS AND GEESE: as per poultry. Use feathers for filling coats and bedding.
SQUIRRELS: cleaned, skinned and quartered, good for frying or in stews.
RACCOONS: cleaned, skinned and chopped, good for stews or in a fire. Use pelt for boots, hats and mitts.
FLORA
PINE NEEDLES: boiled into a tea, serves as an excellent source of Vit C to prevent scurvy and boost immunity.
DANDELION: leaves and flowers boiled into a tea is a health-boosting bitter and liver tonic. Fresh leaves, eaten raw or cooked, are also a healthful addition to the diet.
GRASSES: slowly pulling up blade reveals the edible white flesh that is usually just below the surface of the ground. Avoid eating the tough greens and rough edges.
GRASS SEEDS: All grass seeds are edible, but use the Edibility Test on unknown seeds. Discard grains that are blackened or carry black bean-like grains (these are infected and toxic).
ROOTS AND TUBERS: wash and cook all roots and tubers for better digestibility.
TREE BARK: peel off a large section of bark, but do not cut bark from more than halfway around the tree or you might kill the tree. The light-coloured layer of inner bark is the edible portion. Consume raw or cook like spaghetti or dry and grind into a powder. Choose from aspens, birch, slippery elm, maples, tamaracks, spruce and pines.
CHESTNUTS: collect from trees and boil or roast to eat. Can also be dried and ground into flour.
1:h:ii) GUIDE TO EDIBLE & POISONOUS PLANTS & BERRIES
In case of potential food poisoning, follow these steps:
- spit out any part of the plant that is still in the mouth
- do not induce vomiting
- take small sips of clean water
- go immediately to your community’s health station
In case of contact with a poisonous plant:
- wash the skin immediately with soap and lukewarm water
- go immediately to your community’s health station
The following plants are POISONOUS:
A
amaryllis, angel’s trumpet, arrowhead vine, autumn crocus, azalea, apple seeds, apricot seeds
B
bittersweet, black locust, boston ivy
C
caladium, calla lily, castor bean, chinese lantern plant, clematis, cotoneaster, autumn crocus, cyclamen, cherry pits, crabapple seeds
D
daffodil, daisy (chrysanthemum), delphinium, dumb cane
E
elephant’s ear, english ivy, eucalyptus, euonymus
F
foxglove
G
gladiola
H
holly, horse chestnut, hyacinth, hydrangea
I
iris
J
jack-in-the-pulpit, jequirity bean, jerusalem cherry, jimson weed
L
lark, larkspur, lily-of-the-valley, lobelia, lupine
M
milkweed, mistletoe, monkshood, morning glory, mother-in-law plant
N
narcissus, nightshade
O
oleander
P
peony, periwinkle, philodendron, poison ivy, poison oak, pokeweed, potato (greens), pothos, peach pits
R
rhododendron, rhubarb (greens), rosary bean
S
snake berry, snow-on-the-mountain, star of bethlehem, St. John’s Wort
T
tobacco, tomato (greens and whole plant and unripe fruit)
V
virginia creeper
W
water hemlock, wisteria
The following plants are NOT POISONOUS:
A
african violet, alyssum, asparagus fern, astilbe
B
baby’s breath, baby’s tears, bachelors buttons, black-eyed susans, boston fern
C
chinese evergreen, christmas cactus, coleus, coral bells, cosmos, crocus
D
dahlia, dandelion, daylily, dracaena
E
easter lily, evening primrose
F
ficus benjamina, freesia, fuschia
G
gardenia, glosinia, grape hyacinth
H
hens and chicks, hibiscus, hollyhock, honey locust, hoya
I
impatiens
J
jade plant
M
maple (seeds and young leaves), marigold, money plant, mountain ash, mulberry
P
peperomia, persian violet, petunia, phlox, poinsettia, polka-dot plant, portulaca, prayer plant, primrose, purple coneflower
R
rose, rubber plant
S
schefflera, snapdragon, spider plant, spiraea, statice
T
tulip
W
wandering jew, weeping fig, weigela
Y
yucca
Z
zinnia
The following is a guide to reduce chances of mushroom poisoning:
- poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms grow together, and only a mushroom expert (mycologist) can tell the difference
- it is dangerous to eat any mushroom found outdoors
- cooking mushrooms does not make them safe to eat
- consuming even small parts of some mushrooms can cause sickness and death
- after eating a poisonous mushroom, it may take several hours for illness to become evident
- in case of dubious mushroom consumption, go immediately to your community’s health center
- remove all mushrooms growing in the community to prevent accidental consumption by children or adults unaware of the danger of poisoning
1:h:iii) EDIBILITY TEST
When in doubt of whether a plant or berry is edible, take this test without skipping a single step, being patient and thorough. Do not use the edibility test for mushrooms. Mushrooms must be positively identified. Even the smallest amounts of poisonous mushrooms can be lethal. Do not eat plants with milky sap, except for dandelions.
STEP 1: SMELL
Crush part of the plant. If it smells like almonds or peaches do not eat.
STEP 2: SKIN IRRITATION
Crush part of the plant. Rub some of the juice onto the inside of your arm. Reject this plant if you experience any discomfort, rash, swelling or burning.
STEP 3: MOUTH TEST
Only if the test plant passed the first 2 tests, proceed with the mouth test with caution. Spit out and reject the test plant at the first sign of burning, swelling, irritation, nausea, dizziness or stomach ache.
Crush part of the plant and place a small amount of it on your lips for 10 seconds. If no ill effects, place a pea-sized portion in a corner of your mouth for 10 more seconds. Then move it to the tip of your tongue for 10 more seconds. Then move it under your tongue for 10 more seconds. If no ill effects, chew the substance and hold it in your mouth for an entire 15 minutes. Then spit it out and wait 5 hours watching for any ill effects.
STEP 4: FIRST SWALLOW TEST
If no ill effects after 4 hours, chew and swallow one teaspoon-sized bite. Wait 10 hours while fasting – consume no drink or food during this period.
STEP 5: SECOND SWALLOW TEST
If no ill effects after 10 hours, eat about 1/3 cup of this plant. Wait 24 hours. If no ill effects, you may consider this plant non-poisonous.
Read the next section, Beekeeping & Honey Production...
Beekeeping & Honey Production
Honey is an excellent source of energy, as well as an effective antiseptic, that requires little human and fuel energy to produce. Unlike maple syrup, it requires no processing once harvesting. One hive can produce around 30 lbs of honey per year, enough for about 5 adult males.
Although bee hives can be made out of anything hollow, building a standard box hive makes it possible to harvest the honey without needing to destroy the structure. The hive consists of open boxes called supers (from superhives) in which the frames are hung. As bee populations grow and more room is needed, extra supers are stacked on top, building upwards.
1:i:i) BUILDING A BEE HIVE
HIVE LOCATION
As bees feed on forage plants and flowers, select a location within a 1-2km radius of plants. Bees like alfalfa, clover, dandelion and sage blossoms.
In setting up, prevent mold and disease from a damp environment by placing the hive in a spot with good drainage, such as on a gentle slope. Avoid hollows or low spots where water can collect. It can help to raise the hive above the ground on bricks as well.
The hive should be sheltered from wind, as even a mild breeze can chill the bees. An effective windbreak for the winter months is important. At the same time, the hive requires enough sunlight to keep warm, maintaining a temperature of 34oC. In excessive heat, the hive needs shade to prevent overheating.
1:i:ii) GATHERING AND TENDING TO BEES
Wear protective clothing when tending to bees. A broad-rimmed hat with wire veil will protect the head, face and neck. Light-coloured coveralls and long-sleeved shirt will protect from stings and not agitate bees. Wear loose-fitting gloves and stout boots to protect hands and feet. Equipment needed includes a smoker for quieting bees, a hive tool to pry open frames, and a large kitchen knife. To extract honey more effectively from the frames, you can build a centrifugal extractor to spin the frames within a metal drum to collect honey from the sides.
Begin with a small swarm of bees either captured in the wild or acquired from one of the city’s existing apiaries. The queen bee should be in her own small cage box, lodged between frames near the top of the box. Remove a few frames from the box to allow bees to enter the hive. Pour the package of bees over the queen cake and the opening from the removed frames.
Use a smoker to control bees by blowing smoke where you want them to move from. Also, late afternoon and early evening is when bees are most docile.
1:i:iii) HARVESTING AND STORING HONEY
Plants yield nectar in two main flows. The spring flow starts with the blossoming of dandelions and fruit trees and lasts into July. The fall flow begins around September and ends when hard frost kills the last flowers. Honey can be extracted after each flow, especially at the end of autumn.
Honey can be extracted from the frames by letting it drip into a clean pan. For greater efficiency, build a centrifugal extractor to spin the honey out of the frame (see diagram). Harvest honey from the frames on sunny, windless days. Drive the bees away from the honeycombs by blowing a few puffs of smoke through the hive. After a few minutes, pry loose the outer cover and then the inner cover using the hive tool or crowbar and lift it off. Use more smoke as needed.
Gently pry a frame loose and remove carefully without crushing any bees. Gently brush off bees that cling to the frame. The comb is ready to be harvested if it is 80% sealed over. Take the frame to a tightly screened “room” and slice off the comb surfaces with a large, sharp kitchen knife that’s been pre-warmed in hot water. Place the frame in a pan for dripping, or use in a centrifugal extractor.
STORING HONEY
Newly extracted honey must be strained through cheesecloth to remove wax and impurities. Let the strained honey stand several days. Scrape off the air bubbles that will rise to the surface. Pour the honey into clean, dry containers with tight seals, such as mason jars. Store honey in a warm, dry room.
To prevent fermentation and slow crystallization, heat the honey to 60oC in a water bath before bottling it. Check temperature with a thermometer to prevent overheating. Note however that raw, unpasteurized honey has enormous health benefits but will crystallize in time. Crystallized honey can be liquefied by heating the jar in warm water and stirring.
1:i:iv) WINTERING THE HIVES
Over the winter, cold and lack of food can kill the bees. Leave one deep super filled with honey and polled for the bees. Supplement with syrup as needed when checking the feeder regularly. Open a 1-inch hole in the top of the super for ventilation. Wrap the hive in a layer of tar paper, fastened with tacks or staples. Leave a vent hole, stapling wire mesh over the opening and vent holes to keep mice out of the hives over the winter.
Read the next section, Food Storage & Preservation...
Although bee hives can be made out of anything hollow, building a standard box hive makes it possible to harvest the honey without needing to destroy the structure. The hive consists of open boxes called supers (from superhives) in which the frames are hung. As bee populations grow and more room is needed, extra supers are stacked on top, building upwards.
1:i:i) BUILDING A BEE HIVE
HIVE LOCATION
As bees feed on forage plants and flowers, select a location within a 1-2km radius of plants. Bees like alfalfa, clover, dandelion and sage blossoms.
In setting up, prevent mold and disease from a damp environment by placing the hive in a spot with good drainage, such as on a gentle slope. Avoid hollows or low spots where water can collect. It can help to raise the hive above the ground on bricks as well.
The hive should be sheltered from wind, as even a mild breeze can chill the bees. An effective windbreak for the winter months is important. At the same time, the hive requires enough sunlight to keep warm, maintaining a temperature of 34oC. In excessive heat, the hive needs shade to prevent overheating.
1:i:ii) GATHERING AND TENDING TO BEES
Wear protective clothing when tending to bees. A broad-rimmed hat with wire veil will protect the head, face and neck. Light-coloured coveralls and long-sleeved shirt will protect from stings and not agitate bees. Wear loose-fitting gloves and stout boots to protect hands and feet. Equipment needed includes a smoker for quieting bees, a hive tool to pry open frames, and a large kitchen knife. To extract honey more effectively from the frames, you can build a centrifugal extractor to spin the frames within a metal drum to collect honey from the sides.
Begin with a small swarm of bees either captured in the wild or acquired from one of the city’s existing apiaries. The queen bee should be in her own small cage box, lodged between frames near the top of the box. Remove a few frames from the box to allow bees to enter the hive. Pour the package of bees over the queen cake and the opening from the removed frames.
Use a smoker to control bees by blowing smoke where you want them to move from. Also, late afternoon and early evening is when bees are most docile.
1:i:iii) HARVESTING AND STORING HONEY
Plants yield nectar in two main flows. The spring flow starts with the blossoming of dandelions and fruit trees and lasts into July. The fall flow begins around September and ends when hard frost kills the last flowers. Honey can be extracted after each flow, especially at the end of autumn.
Honey can be extracted from the frames by letting it drip into a clean pan. For greater efficiency, build a centrifugal extractor to spin the honey out of the frame (see diagram). Harvest honey from the frames on sunny, windless days. Drive the bees away from the honeycombs by blowing a few puffs of smoke through the hive. After a few minutes, pry loose the outer cover and then the inner cover using the hive tool or crowbar and lift it off. Use more smoke as needed.Gently pry a frame loose and remove carefully without crushing any bees. Gently brush off bees that cling to the frame. The comb is ready to be harvested if it is 80% sealed over. Take the frame to a tightly screened “room” and slice off the comb surfaces with a large, sharp kitchen knife that’s been pre-warmed in hot water. Place the frame in a pan for dripping, or use in a centrifugal extractor.
STORING HONEY
Newly extracted honey must be strained through cheesecloth to remove wax and impurities. Let the strained honey stand several days. Scrape off the air bubbles that will rise to the surface. Pour the honey into clean, dry containers with tight seals, such as mason jars. Store honey in a warm, dry room.
To prevent fermentation and slow crystallization, heat the honey to 60oC in a water bath before bottling it. Check temperature with a thermometer to prevent overheating. Note however that raw, unpasteurized honey has enormous health benefits but will crystallize in time. Crystallized honey can be liquefied by heating the jar in warm water and stirring.
1:i:iv) WINTERING THE HIVES
Over the winter, cold and lack of food can kill the bees. Leave one deep super filled with honey and polled for the bees. Supplement with syrup as needed when checking the feeder regularly. Open a 1-inch hole in the top of the super for ventilation. Wrap the hive in a layer of tar paper, fastened with tacks or staples. Leave a vent hole, stapling wire mesh over the opening and vent holes to keep mice out of the hives over the winter.
Read the next section, Food Storage & Preservation...
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