The Post-Oil Survival Guide for City Dwelling

What is the The Post-Oil Survival Guide?

2007-09-15T18:08:00.002-04:00

The age of petroleum is haltingly coming to an end. Some say it started in 2007, some say it will come in 15 years. But the end of cheap and plentiful oil will certainly arrive. What does that mean for city dwellers? Imagine no gasoline to truck in foods from Canadian farms or from across the border. No cheap plastic products shipped in from other countries. No fuel to get from one end of the city to the other, by car or transit. What if water stops running in our pipes and electricity gets rationed to a minimum, or is blacked out for good?

The inevitable future for urban citizens entails producing and preserving our own food, heating our homes with wood-burning stoves using renewable materials, and converting single family homes into multiple family dwellings as we empty apartment buildings and highrises. Building outhouses and composting toilets, making our own natural remedies, and reusing all materials and waste available, will be among the many skills we will need to become a resilient society.

This guide is a detailed, comprehensive manual for converting cities into self-reliant, sustainable communities. Here, instructions are for Toronto (Canada) but can be applied to any city with a temperate climate. Read on, and prepare yourselves with information and skills that are on the brink of extinction, as we ourselves may be, without adapting quickly, wisely, and sustainably.

Start reading from the beginning...

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

NB: No information provided here is a replacement for professional advice. No individual can survive without being part of a community comprised of knowledgeable people making social connections with each other. The best information comes from education and experience.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Wiki, anyone?
If anyone is interested in turning the content of this guide into a Wiki, or knows of one in existence that we can add to, please let me know! The more voices that contribute to a guide of this nature, the better the information.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

For links and reading recommendations,
see the REFERENCES section of this site.

Checklists & Considerations

2007-09-15T17:26:00.000-04:00

Try to imagine an entirely self-sufficient group of neighbourhoods and communities -- our city -- and what experts will be required and in which fields, to consult and guide to assure our survival. Without the ability to import medicines from across the country or our borders, for example, we will need all natural medical help available, coming from herbalists, botanists, homeopaths, acupuncturists and midwives. In raising our own livestock, we'll need to enlist the help of carpenters, veterinarians and butchers.

Looking at all aspects of living locally, and sustainably, the list of expert support needed would include:

~ MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS ranging from first aid attendants and surgeons to herbalists and midwives
~ EDUCATORS for schooling of children and adults
~ SPIRITUAL & EMOTIONAL ADVISORS to help individuals cope with volatility, hardship and an uncertain future
~ MECHANICS & ENGINEERS in areas ranging from bicycle repair, carpentry and large-scale water systems
~ AGRICULTURAL EXPERTS in organic farming, botany and permaculture
~ LIVESTOCK SPECIALISTS including veterinarians, butchers and cheesemakers

An indispensable source of information is always found in community public libraries, the Toronto Reference Library and those in colleges and universities. While electricity is still available, as much information as possible should be researched online. For a more comprehensive list of experts and skills needed, as well as books and links to useful websites, see the Community Resources section at the end.

Another thing to consider is safety, including the protection of food from thieves and looting. During times where community and planning are indispensable for survival, there will be groups or individuals lacking these necessities that will raid homes, farms and storage facilities; in converting public spaces and private yards into micro-farms, large areas of food production are out in the open day and night. As well, outdoor food preservation like above-ground cold storage sheds and shacks are suceptible to break-ins if unprotected. To deter thieves from taking precious food supplies, a schedule of shift guards should be applied to all major open areas, with an alarm system (such as bells or whistles) to sound and get more help as needed. Also, guard dogs are indispensable in detecting intruders and also scaring them off.

There is still a place for household pets in our homes and communities. Dogs are an asset for guarding food and supplies, but also for assisting in transportation using sleds and wagons (see the Transportation chapter for more details). Cats are essential in controling mouse populations which might otherwise infest stored food, especially grains and flours.

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

2007-09-15T16:55:00.000-04:00

Food production is one of the most important tasks for our survival as a city. The methods in this guide for growing crops are bio-intensive and organic, as we have no petroleum-based fertilizers or pesticides, and have limited land to work on. All available green spaces need to be converted into farm land, massive composting systems established, and irrigation systems set up. To extend the growing season, greenhouses and sprouting beds will be built, and a variety of energy-efficient food preservation methods implemented.

1:a,i) RATIONING

To calculate food requirements for 1 year, use the chart below for each community, using adult males as the base measurement per individual:

FORMULA:
Number of Individuals (X) Food Factor (=) Equivalent Adult Males

adult males x 1.0
adult females x 0.85
teenage males x 1.4
teenage females x 0.95
male children (7 to 11) x 0.95
female children (7 to 11) x 0.75
young children (4 to 6) x 0.6
infants (1 to 3) x 0.4

To calculate, multiply the number of individuals with the food factor to achieve a figure for an adult male equivalent, then add all equivalent adults in the community for the food requirements per year (see food quantities below). For example, in a community of 10 men, 10 women, 5 boys, 5 girls and 5 young children, the food requirement for 1 year would be equivalent to 30 adult males.

Food quantities for 1 adult male for 1 year:
GRAINS: 325 lbs (variety: oats, corn, rice, barley, etc)
LEGUMES: 80 lbs (dry) (variety: beans, peas, lentils, seeds, etc)
EGGS & DAIRY: 50 lbs (preserved as cheese)
MEAT: 20 lbs (preserved as dried meat, canned, etc)
FRUITS & VEGETABLES: 20 lbs (dry) (dehydrated variety)
SWEETENERS: 60 lbs (honey, syrups, etc)
FATS: 40 lbs (butter, lard, vegetable oils)

1:a,ii) DAILY MINIMUM CALORIC INTAKE

Another way to determine individuals’Caloric needs are determined by a number of factors including present weight, height, age, physical activity, health, body-fat percentage and metabolism. This rough guideline is for active individuals of average height and weight. Elderly or immobile individuals require much fewer calories, and in cases of the sick and injured food intake should be limited and of high nutritional value and easy digestibility.

Adult Males: 2000
Adult Females: 1700
Teenage Males: 2800
Teenage Females: 1900
Male Children: 1900
Female Children: 1500
Young Children: 1200
Infants: 800

1:a,iii) NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOODS

WHOLE DRY GRAINS (100 g)
Barley: 350cals, high source of protein, fiber, potassium, Vit A, zinc, iron, calcium
Cornmeal: 365cals, high source of Vit A, carbohydrates
Oats: 400cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrates
Rye: 380cals, high source of fiber
Wheat: 340cals, 17g protein, high source of fiber, zinc, potassium, carbohydrates

VEGETABLES (100g)
Beets: 45cals, high source of potassium, folate
Beet greens: 30cals, high source of Vit A, potassium, iron, calcium
Broccoli: 30cals, high source of Vits A & C, calcium, phytonutrients
Brussels sprouts: 40cals, high in fiber, potassium, calcium Vits A & C, phytonutrients
White cabbage: 20cals, source of fiber, phytonutrients
Chinese cabbage: 15cals, high source of calcium, potassium, Vits A & C
Chives: 30cals, high source of Vit A
Carrots: 45cals, high source of potassium, phytonutrients, very high source of Vit A
Cauliflower: 25cals, high source of fiber, potassium, Vit C, phytonutrients
Collards: 25cals, high source of Vit A
Coriander: 20cals, high source of calcium, potassium, very high source of Vit A
Corn: 80cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrates
Pickled cucumber: 20cals, source of Vit A
Eggplant: 30cals, high source of fiber
Fiddleheads: 20cals
Garlic: 130cals, high source of calcium, antioxidants, phytonutrients
Ginger root: 100cals, high source of antioxidants
Kale: 30cals, high source of fiber, calcium, very high source of Vit A, phytonutrients
Lettuce: 20cals, high source of calcium, Vit A
Onion: 35cals
Parsley: 30cals, high source of calcium, potassium, Vit C, very high source of Vit A, folate, antioxidant, phytonutrients
Parsnips: 80cals, high source of Vit C, potassium, carbohydrates
Peas: 85cals, high source of fiber, potassium, Vit A
Green pepper: 25cals, high source of potassium, Vits A & C
Red pepper: 25cals, high source of potassium, Vit C, very high source of Vit A
White potato: 110cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, potassium, Vit C
Sweet potato: 100cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, potassium, Vit C, extremely high source of Vit A, phytonutrients
Spinach: 20cals, high source of Potassium, Vitamin A, folate, riboflavin, phytonutrients
Summer squashes: 20cals, high source of potassium, fiber
Winter squashes: 40cals, high source of potassium, phytonutrients, very high source of Vit A
Tomato: 20cals, high source of potassium, Vits A & C, phytonutrients
Turnips: 20cals, high source of fiber,
Turnip greens: 20cals, high source of fiber, very high source of calcium, folate, Vits A & C
Zucchini: 15cals, source of fiber, Vit A

FRUITS (100g)
Apples: 60cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrate
Apricots: 50cals, high source of fiber, calcium, potassium, very high source of Vit A
Blackberries: 55cals, high source of fiber, calcium, potassium, Vit C
Blueberries: 55cals, high source of fiber, Vit C, antioxidants, phytonutrients
Cherries: 75cals, high source of fiber, Vit A,
Peaches: 40cals, high source of Vit A
Pears: 60cals, high source of fiber, carbohydrates, potassium
Plums: 55cals, high source of Vit A
Raspberries: 50cals, high source of folate, Vit C, riboflavin
Rhubarb: 20cals, high source of fiber, calcium, potassium, antioxidants
Strawberries: 25cals, very high source of Vit C
Watermelon: 30cals, high in phytonutrients

DAIRY & EGGS (250mL)
Buttermilk: 105cals, high in sodium, potassium, very high in calcium
Human breast milk: 180cals, high in fat, cholesterol, Vits A & C, antibodies
Soymilk: 85cals, high in potassium
Yogurt (whole goat’s or sheep’s milk): 180cals, high in fat, cholesterol, Vit A, very high in calcium
Cottage cheese: 240cals, high source of protein, sodium, potassium
Goat cheese: 260cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, calcium, very high source of Vit A
Medium cheese: 350cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, very high source of calcium, Vit A
Hard cheese: 485cals, high source of protein, fat, sodium, cholesterol, very high source of calcium, Vit A
Sour cream: 370cals, high source of fat, potassium, calcium, cholesterol, very high source of Vit A
Eggs (each): 80cals, source of protein, cholesterol, Vit A

LAKE FISH (100g)
Catfish: 105cals, high source of protein, potassium
Trout: 190cals, source of protein, potassium
Whitefish: 175cals, source of protein, cholesterol, potassium, Vit A, niacin

MEATS (100g)
Lamb: 220cals, high source of protein, cholesterol, iron, zinc, potassium, folate, niacin
Pork: 300cals, high source of fat, protein, cholesterol, niacin
Rabbit: 205cals, high source of protein, potassium, niacin
Organ meats (chicken): 155cals, high source of potassium, cholesterol, very high source of Vit A

POULTRY (100g)
Chicken: 170cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, sodium, potassium, Vit A, niacin
Duck: 200cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, niacin
Goose: 240cals, high source of protein, fat, cholesterol, potassium
Turkey: 185cals, high source of protein, cholesterol, potassium

LEGUMES (250mL)
Black beans: 240cals, high source of protein, carbohydrate, fiber, very high source of potassium, folate, phytonutrients
Kidney beans: 130cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, potassium, phytonutrients
Soy beans: 172cals, high source of protein, calcium, iron, potassium Vit A, phytonutrients
Lentils: 120cals, high source of carbohydrate, fiber, iron, protein, potassium, phytonutrients, very high source of folate, niacin
Chick peas: 120cals, high source of protein, carbohydrate, fiber, calcium, potassium, Vit A, folate
Split peas: 120cals, high source of protein, carbohydrate, potassium, folate, niacin

NUTS & SEEDS (100g)
Almonds: 585cals, source of protein, carbohydrate, fat, sodium, potassium, high source of calcium
Pecans: 670cals, source of carbohydrate, fat, Vit A
Pine nuts: 520cals, high source of protein, fiber, fat, iron, potassium, folate, niacin
Walnuts: 640cals, high source of fat, calcium, potassium, Vit A
Flax seeds: 490cals, high source of fiber, calcium, folate, phytonutrients
Pumpkin seeds: 520cals, high source of fiber, fat, calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, very high source of Vit A, folate, niacin
Sesame seeds: 580cals, high source of fat, niacin, very high source of calcium, folate, potassium
Sunflower seeds: 575cals, high source of fat, folate, niacin, fiber

FATS (250mL)
Butter: 1719cals, high source of fat, cholesterol, Vit A
Lard: 1954cals, high source of fat, cholesterol
Canola oil: 2035cals, high source of fat
Corn oil: 2040cals, high source of fat
Sunflower oil: 2035cals, high source of fat

SUGARS & SYRUPS (250mL)
Honey: 1085cals, high source of energy
Corn syrup: 965cals, high source of energy, sodium
Maple syrup: 865cals, high source of energy, potassium

1:a,iv) NATIVE CROPS & LIVESTOCK

As well as detailing the caloric value, the previous section lists the various foods appropriate for production in Toronto. For example, oranges are not included in the list as they can only be grown in warmer climates south of the border so far. However, with the construction of greenhouses, it would be possible to grow tropical and hot-climate fruits such as citrus, bananas, avocadoes and figs, and is certainly worth the attempt if seeds of such plants are found. Warm-climate fruits like the peach and almond tree historically grew best in areas like California and Italy, but because of the large water mass of Lake Ontario, plus the longer, hotter summers here since the beginning of the millennium, it is now suitable to grow and harvest here.

Cows are omitted from the list due to the mass-extermination of all beef and dairy cow breeds in the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, aka mad cow disease) epidemic in 2009. As well, this cattle production requires more caloric input than is produced for human consumption and as such is not a sustainable food source.

Read the next section, Urban Farming Spaces...

Urban Farming Spaces

2007-09-14T18:19:00.000-04:00

With no reliable transportation available to haul produce and food from the countryside into the city, all useable growing spaces need to be converted into food-producing gardens at a large scale. This includes space for irrigation systems, seedling production, and composting systems. The methods that follow focus on high-yield biointensive farming methods

1:b,i) CONVERTING PUBLIC SPACES INTO TILLABLE LAND

Large areas of grassy lawns are ideal sites for farming, including public parks and some corporate and government buildings that are fronted by wide lawns. Some of these areas should be reserved for grazing by livestock if they are adjacent to small buildings that can be converted into barns and coops (see 1:7). The rest will require thorough tilling to break up the grasses and expose fertile soil for planting crops.

CONVERTING LAWN SPACES
One method of removing the grass from lawns to have useable growing soil is to physically remove all the grass with spades and shovels, and composting all the grass. This is a labourious method which yields instant results and provides a massive starter for compost if there is a shortage of it. Using a flat-edged shovel, cut the sod into 1-foot squares or larger, then pull up the top layer of grass with a shovel or spade . Transfer to the compost system. This can be done at any time of the growing year, preferably in the spring.

Another method is sod conversion, which decays the grass converting it into soil. This method requires many months in order for the sod to break down, and so is best done in the fall to have soil ready for the following spring. Cover the entire area of lawn with a biodegradable material like newspaper, to block out the sun. Add a 6-inch layer of compost or soil on top of the newspaper, watering on top of newspaper and compost/soil layers.

A third method of composting lawn is by creating turf loam. In a soil pit, line the bottom with one layer of lawn grass-side-up, and top that with a layer of lawn grass-side down, so the grass surfaces face each other. Repeat this with one more layer, then cover with a top layer of soil (saved from digging the pit). Allow to decompose for several summer months or until preparing seedling flats the following spring (see 1:3).

1:b,ii) MAP OF LOCATIONS IN TORONTO

Below is a map of lawn spaces in Toronto that are at various stages of being converted into farmland.

High Park (Bloor St. & Parkside Ave.)
Trinity Bellwoods Park (Dundas St. W. & Ossington Ave.)
Earlscourt Park (St. Clair Ave. W. & Lansdowne Ave.)
Sir Winston Churchill Park (Spadina Rd. & St. Clair Ave. W.)
Queens Park (University Ave. & College Ave.)
Christie Pits (Bloor St. & Christie Ave.)
Allan Gardens (Gerrard St. E. & Jarvis)
Riverdale Park West (Riverdale Farm) (Carlton & Bayview)
Riverdale Park East (Broadview & Danforth)
Don Valley Brick Works (Bayview Ave)
Withrow Park (Pape & Danforth)
Woodbine Park (Queen St. East & Kingston Rd.)
Taylor Creek Park (Woodbine Ave & O’Connor Dr)
Lower Don Parklands
E. T. Seton Park
Sunnybrook Park
Ashridges Bay Park
Tommy Thomson Park
Toronto Island

1:b,iii) WATER SOURCES

Although crops will grow with just the water provided by rain, it will yield much smaller quantities and sizes of produce. Irrigation is necessary in this climate, and outlined below are sources of water, how to collect and transport water, plus irrigation systems.

EXISTING WATER SOURCES
Pollution is the main factor concerning water sources in the city, but unfortunately this problem is widespread. The water available will need to be used for irrigation regardless, but it will affect the quality of the produce and in any case should not be used for drinking or cooking without treatment (see 1:2:iv).

PONDS
Grenadier Pond (High Park) – adjacent to parkland
Ontario Science Center – adjacent to parkland

RIVERS & CREEKS
All downtown tributaries were buried over a century ago, leaving only the Don River at the east edge (much too polluted to use for crop watering), the Humber River at the west end (both too far and too marshy for irrigation), and Balfour Creek at Yonge and St. Clair (almost dried up).

1:b,iv) IRRIGATION

In cases where farmland has no access to water bodies, rain can still be a main source of water, but collected to be used in an irrigation system. This is rainwater harvesting, a simple technology that greatly suits this city’s current situation, for farming as well as daily consumption.

In the case of High Park, there is a water source directly connected to the farmland. In cases such as this, irrigation systems can come from the water source using a conveyor system to carry water up from the water source to a holding tank. The tank must be elevated higher than the highest spot on the field, as gravity and water pressure will propel water through the water hose. Connect the hose to a tap at the bottom of the tank.

Alternately, use the tap to fill buckets or other containers to carry water to fields that are far from water sources. See section 2 for methods of harvesting rainwater.

For passive irrigation based on water pressure, install a drip system of interconnected hoses (preferably between 1/8” and 1/2” diameter) with holes punched in even increments to let water leak onto fields directly at plant bases.

1:b,v) DOMESTIC & NEIGHBOURHOOD FARMING

Large public spaces will provide the majority of produce and pasture land needed for the citizens of Toronto. To maximize production of foods and herbs for consumption as well as medicinal purposes, it is best to convert unused outdoor spaces in homes, buildings and neighbourhoods, into productive areas. Domestic yards of grass or soil are obvious sites for growing a garden. For non-soil areas, plants will have to be container gardened.

ROOFTOPS
All flat, accessible rooftops can be converted into garden spaces. However, due to the weight of soil and water, not all rooftops have the adequate load-bearing support right on the roof. They will, however, be sturdy enough at the perimeter that large metal grates or planks of wood can rest on. The containers will have to be large enough to grow plenty of food, and also to not fall over strong winds common to elevated areas.

DECKS, PATIOS & BALCONIES
These areas have sturdy concrete or wood floors and high barriers are built for extra weight, therefore can house large gardens in constructed boxes or found containers. This also applies to rooftops with concrete or decked surfaces.

FIRE ESCAPES
Fire escapes are harsh environments for growing plants due to the wind, intense heat and dryness. Container plants in these areas need much watering, and some plants are more suited to this setting than others, including lavender, marigold, rosemary, tomatoes, and tomatillos.

Read the next section, Soil Preparation...

Soil Preparation

2007-09-14T10:34:00.000-04:00

Generally the soil in Toronto is of poor quality for growing crops and will require as much nourishment as possible before farming. Start by nourishing with green manure: planting alfalfa and comfrey in the spring, and tilling it back into the land at the end of the growing season. The deep roots of these plants will draw nutrients up from deeper soil, producing much higher quality soil the following spring for growing good-quality crops. After a year of preparing soil with this green manure or by mulching (see below), test the soil type for pH balance and adjust with additives and natural fertilizer when available.

Fertile soil requires 3 things: a healthy ratio of silt, clay, sand and organic matter; a pH balance of neither too acidic nor too alkaline; high nutrient and organic matter present.

Fertile, humus-rich soil is called loam, and contains about 40 percent silt, 20 percent clay, and 40 percent a combination of sand and organic matter. This ratio ensures good drainage, looseness, and retention of moisture and nutrients.

1:c,i) TESTING SOIL TYPE

To determine the make-up of your soil, place a cupful in a 1-litre jar, top up with water and shake well. The soil will settle in distinct layers of sand, silt and clay. The relative thickness of the layers indicates the proportion of each.

If you find 1/3 or more is clay, you need to lighten the soil by adding sand, peat moss, compost, or a combination of thereof.

The most accurate pH test is done using a pH soil testing kit. Since these are no longer in production and therefore unavailable, tasting the soil is a good test and is also harmless to people. If it tastes salty-sweet the soil is alkaline, and if it tastes sour or bitter it is acidic.

Some crops do well in acidic soil, and others in alkaline, but most crops do best in neutral soil that is just a little bit acidic. To neutralize soil that is either too acidic or too alkaline, work in a generous amount of compost and fresh manure.

1:c,ii) FERTILIZING & MULCHING

Fertilizing is imperative for high-yield food production and to balance the nutrients in the soil for healthy plant growth. Below is a chart of different kinds and their contributions.

BONEMEAL: P (20-25%); gentle; slow acting
COMPOST: all nutrients; best all-round fertilizer
DRIED BLOOD: N (5-12%) & P (3-13%); best source of nitrogen; helps soil organisms grow; quick acting
FISH MEAL: N (6-8%) & P (13%) & K (3-4%); quick acting
HORN/HOOF MEAL: N (7-15%); quick acting
DRIED GOAT/SHEEP MANURE: N (2.5%) & P (1.5%) & K (1.5%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
FRESH HORSE MANURE: N (0.7%) & P (0.25%) & K (0.55%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
DRIED POULTRY MANURE: N (2.4%) & P (3.2%) & K (1.3%); will burn plants if used directly on field; must be used in combination with other fertilizers
FRESH RABBIT MANURE: N (2.4%); P (1.4%) & K (0.6%); must be aged or composted 3 months before using on the field
WOOD ASHES: P (1-2%) & K (3-7%); for an alkaline effect on the soil

P = Phosphorus; N = Nitrogen; K = Potassium

TROUBLESHOOTING:
Deficiency of phosphorus: plants will be stunted in growth and have leaves of a darker green than normal
Deficiency of nitrogen: plants will be stunted in growth with yellow leaves
Excess of nitrogen: plants will produce little fruit and weak stems
Deficiency of potassium: plant leaves will be dark green with yellowish brown leaf edges or dark brown spots on older leaves’ tips

1:c,iii) TILLING & AERATING THE SOIL

Tilling the soil is important as it breaks up and buries matter that would otherwise compete with cultivated plants for space, water and nutrients. It also loosens the soil, kills eggs and larvae of many insect pests, and enriches the soil, all of which help produce stronger, more fruitful plants. A disadvantage to tilling is that it also kills worms and other insects that help aerate the soil continually, and it also dries out the rich earth that’s brought to open air. To prevent drying out, mulching is imperative. Bio-intensive agriculture requires double-digging the earth, a type of tilling that is labour-intensive but extremely thorough and effective in preparing soil for excellent crop production for years to come, producing 2 to 4 times more food and doubling soil fertility compared to using traditional, conventional row beds in the same amount of space.

STEP 1: For lawns and grassy areas, remove top grass layer with a shovel or spade and set out on the roads to dry and use for compost. (see 1:2:i)
STEP 2: Thoroughly soak the area to be dug, preferably in 5 foot by 20 foot beds, then let it dry out for 2 days.
STEP 3: Loosen the top 12 inches of soul with a spading fork and remove weeds.
STEP 4: Water soil lightly and let rest for 1 day.
STEP 5: At this point, add a 1” layer of sand if soy is clayey, or clay if soil is sandy, and work into the loose soil.
STEP 6: Add a 1” layer of compost and work into the soil.
STEP 7: Water lightly and let rest for 1 day.

From here proceed with double-digging method of tilling soil into trenches:

STEP 8: Place a digging board (a large scrap piece of plywood works well) over soil, pulling back off the area that is the first trench, then keep moving back as you work each trench.
STEP 9: Standing on the digging board, dig a 1-foot-wide by 1-foot-deep trench, saving most of that removed soil to start compost, and using some to make flat soil for growing seedlings.
STEP 10: Loosen the soil at the bottom of that first trench (“double-dig”), to a further depth of 1 foot. If the soil is very hard and compacted, do at least 4 inches or as much as will loosen.
STEP 11: Dig out the second 1-foot by 1-foot trench and move this soil over to fill the first trench, mixing the layers as little as possible. Do not turn the upper layer over when moving it from one trench to another – you are trying to keep the natural soil stratification intact.
STEP 12: Loosen the soil at the bottom of that second trench (“double-dig”) to a depth of 1 more foot, or at least 4 inches.
STEP 13: Continue until all trenches are dug.
STEP 14: Level and shape the entire bed with a mounded top, filling the last trench with soil.
STEP 15: Sprinkle the top of the bed with compost and whatever fertilizer and pH neutralizer required as per above. Do not rake or disturb the top of the soil at this point.
STEP 16: Plant seeds or transplant seedlings.
STEP 17: Cover earth with mulch (wood chips, shredded paper, scattered straw).
STEP 18: Water thoroughly.

Read the next section, Planting...

Planting

2007-09-13T11:30:00.000-04:00

Once the urban farm spaces have been selected, grass removed and soil prepared, it is ready for planting. For the first year of planting, it is best to prepare the soil the year before, to give the farmland time to turn compost and mulch into nutrient-rich soil.

1:d,i) PREPARING SEEDLINGS

It is recommended to plant seeds in flats rather than straight into the farm soil for several reasons. One is that by planting in flats, they can be stored in small seedling greenhouses to help protect them from cold, wind and frost in early spring when it would be too cold for seeds out in the elements. This extends the growing season. Another reason is that the soil can by used for other purposes while seedlings grow elsewhere, for example it can be producing green manure (see 1:3), and be prepared through tilling and aerating. Also, weaker seeds will not waste space on the land and can be excluded during the transplanting process.

SEEDLING FLATS
Begin by building flats for the seedlings. The standard flat size is 3 inches deep by 14 inches wide by 23 inches long (internal dimensions). Flat length and width are not critical, but depth needs to be 3 inches as a shallower soil will result in stunted plants.

Completely filling the flat, add special soil mixture that is ideal for seedling growth. There are 2 mixtures you can use: 1) Combine (by volume) one part soil from the earth where the plants will be transplanted to (farmland; use soil saved from the first trench dug when aerating), with one part sifted compost. 2) Combine (by weight) one part each moist, sifted compost, gritty sand, and turf loam (for how to make turf loam, see 1:2:i). If available, line the bottom of the flat with decayed oak leaves for drainage and extra nutrients.

SOWING SEEDS
Plant seeds 1” to 2” apart, depending on the plant (see Master Charts at the end of this section), and as deep as the thin vertical dimension of each side. Cover the seeds with a layer of soil.

Now that the seeds are sown, place the flats in miniature greenhouses for germination and growth (up to 12 weeks depending on plant). Transfer to a cold frame for 2 days when seedlings are almost ready for transplanting, then out into the open air for 2 more days to complete the hardening off process before transplanting.

To deter mice and birds, a cover can be built for the flats using scavenged or reclaimed materials: construct a frame of the same size as the flat, and top with wire mesh; place this on top of the flat outdoors.

1:d,ii) HOUSING & TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS

MINI-GREENHOUSES & COLD FRAMES
A mini-greenhouse made from plastic sheeting, glass and wood can increase the temperature of the soil and the air surrounding plants. Double-glazing, which is a double layer of plastic sheeting or glass with an airtight gap between them, will protect the plants in sub-zero weather.

Cold frames provide slightly less solar heating than a greenhouse and helps harden seedlings before being transplanted into the colder farmland outdoors.

BUILDING FULL-SIZED GREENHOUSES
Mini-greenhouses are suitable for home gardens or individually-attended plots. For community-scale farming, full-sized greenhouses will serve a larger number of seedling flats.

TRANSPLANTING
Most seedlings are ready to be transplanted when they are 2” to 3” (see Master Chart at the end of this section). Handle seedlings as little and gently as possible. Early evening is the best time to transplant so the seedlings settle into the new soil during more moderate weather conditions.

Using a fork, gently separate a 4” x 4” section of soil containing seedlings. Place this section on the ground and carefully pull away one plant at a time for transplanting. Keep as much soil around the roots as possible. If the roots are tightly packed, gently spread the roots out in all directions. Following the Biointensive Farming method below for layout and schedule, place each seedling into a large enough hole to cover the plant/roots with soil up to and including the first set of true leaves. Water gently and thoroughly, then press the soil firmly around the seedling.

It is advised to save extra seedlings in flats instead of transplanting all available seedlings at once. This is because inevitably some transplanted seedlings will die off or be eaten by animals or insects, leaving spots in the soil pattern of seedlings. These spots will need to be filled in order to preserve the miniclimate created by closely planted seedlings, as per the biointensive method outlined below.

1:d,iii) BIOINTENSIVE FARMING

Biointensive Farming is a term used to describe a kind of produce production that actually helps build up soil health and does not deplete topsoil, unlike conventional farming practices of the past which were unsustainable and resulted in a net reduction of overall soil quality worldwide. Biointensive farming follows the following principles:

- Deep soil preparation to develop good soil structure
- Use of compost for soil fertility and nutrients
- Close plant spacing to mimic nature and maximize production
- Companion planting to boost plant health and deter pests naturally
- Dual-purpose seed and grain crop plantation for production of large amounts of carbonaceous compost materials, as well as significant amounts of dietary calories
- High-calorie crops using 30% of growing area for roots vegetables
- Open-pollinated seed use to preserve genetic diversity

Biointensive farming is a whole, interrelated system where all the components must be used together for optimum effect. This system uses less water than conventional farming methods, less fertilizer, does not require machinery, increases soil fertility, encourages biodiversity, and uses 100% space efficiency.

HEXAGONAL LAYOUT
Planting seedlings at even intervals helps plants grow better. The leaves form an even canopy over the soil, creating a microclimate that prevents soil from drying out or getting overly wet, and the roots have an even supply of nutrients. Different plants require different amounts of space between plants (see Master Chart at the end of this section), but all plants should be planted in a hexagonal layout. To achieve this, create a triangular template to guide placement of seeds:

PLANTING SCHEDULE
WINTER: plan the planting layout; prepare flats, trellises, mini-greenhouses
SPRING: plant flats; start new compost piles with weeds, grass clippings and compost crops; harvest compost crops; dig garden beds; spread cured fall/winter compost; plant cool-weather crops
SUMMER: plant summer crops; keep garden watered and weeded; harvest as needed; plant fall-gardens of cool-weather crops at end of summer
FALL: begin additional compost piles with leaves and garden waste; harvest summer crops; plant fall/winter compost crops.

FARMING LAYOUT TO FEED FOUR PEOPLE
Most growing beds are 100 square feet (5 by 20 feet). Crops planted in the spring make way for late summer crops when spring crops are harvested. Some crops stay all season.

1:d,iv) COMPANION PLANTING

Companion planting is the constructive use of plant relationships, building on each plant’s complementary physical demands. Placing complementary plants together creates a microcosm that includes vegetables, fruits, trees, bushes, wheat, flowers, weeds, birds, soil, microorganisms, water, nutrients, insects, toads, spiders and chickens, to grow together and help repel pests.

For large-scale planting, as seen in the plan above, the plants complement each other over a larger area, sharing the beds with several crops, and rotating within the season.

LIST OF COMMON VEGETABLES AND THEIR CORRESPONDING COMPANIONS (beneficial when planted closeby) AND ANTAGONISTS (should not be planted together):
ASPARAGUS: companions: tomatoes, parsley, basil
BEANS: companions: potatoes, carrots, cucumbers, cauliflower, cabbage, most herbs;
antagonists: onions, garlic, gladiolus, chives
BUSH BEANS: companions: potatoes, cucumbers, corn, strawberries, celery
antagonists: onions
POLE BEANS: companions: corn, sunflowers
antagonists: onions, beets, kohlrabi, cabbage
BEETS: companions: onions, kohlrabi
antagonists: pole beans
CABBAGE FAMILY: companions: aromatic plants, potatoes, celery, dill, chamomile, sage, peppermint, rosemary, beets, onions
antagonists: strawberries, tomatoes, pole beans
CARROTS: companions: peas, leaf lettuce, chives, onions, leeks, rosemary, sage, tomatoes
antagonists: dill
CELERY: companions: leeks, tomatoes, bush beans, cauliflower, cabbage
CHIVES: companions: carrots, tomatoes
antagonists: peas, beans
CORN: companions: potatoes, peas, beans, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash
CUCUMBERS: companions: beans, corn, peas, radishes, sunflowers, lettuce
antagonists: potatoes, aromatic herbs
EGGPLANT: companions: beans, potatoes
LEEKS: companions: onions, celery, carrots
LETTUCE: companions: carrots and radishes, strawberries, cucumbers, onions
ONIONS/GARLIC: companions: beets, strawberries, tomatoes, lettuce, leeks, chamomile
antagonists: peas, beans
PARSLEY: companions: tomatoes, asparagus
PEAS: companions: carrots, turnips, radishes, cucumbers, corn, beans, most herbs
antagonists: onions, garlic, gladiolus, potatoes, chives
POTATOES: companions: beans, corn, cabbage, marigolds, eggplant
antagonists: pumpkins, squash, cucumbers, sunflowers, tomatoes, raspberries
PUMPKINS: companions: corn
antagonists: potatoes
RADISHES: companions: peas, nasturtiums, lettuce, cucumbers
SOYBEANS: grows with anything, helps everything
SPINACH: companions: strawberries
SQUASH: companions: nasturtiums, corn
antagonists: potatoes
STRAWBERRIES: companions: bush beans, spinach, borage, lettuce (as a border), onions
antagonists: cabbage
SUNFLOWERS: companions: cucumbers
antagonists: potatoes
TOMATOES: companions: chives, onions, parsley, asparagus, marigolds, nasturtiums, carrots
antagonists: kohlrabi, potatoes, fennel, cabbage
TURNIPS: companions: peas

1:d,v) PEST CONTROL

COMPANION PLANTING FOR PEST CONTROL
Certain herbs and crops will deter insect pests. Below is a list of pets and the plants that control them.

ANTS: spearmint, tansy, pennyroyal
APHIDS: nasturtium, spearmint, stinging nettle, southernwood, garlic
BLACK FLEA BEETLE: wormwood, mint
BLACK FLY: Intercropping, stinging nettle
CABBAGEWORM BUTTERFLY: sage, rosemary, hyssop, thyme, mint, wormwood, southernwood
CUTWORM: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
FLIES: nut trees, rue, tansy, spray of wormwood and/or tomato
JAPANESE BEETLES: white geranium
JUNE BUG GRUB: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
MALARIA MOSQUITO: wormwood, southernwood, rosemary
MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE: potatoes
MOSQUITO: legumes
MOTHS: sage, santolina, lavender, mint, stinging nettle, herbs
PLANT LICE: castor bean, sassafras, pennyroyal
POTATO BEETLES: eggplant, flax, green beans
SLUGS: oak leaf mulch, tanbark
SQUASH BUGS: nasturtium
STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE: radish
WEEVILS: garlic
WOOLLY APHIDS: nasturtium
WORMS IN GOATS: carrots
WORMS IN HORSES: tansy leaves, mulberry leaves

NATURAL PREDATORS FOR PEST CONTROL
Encourage natural insect control by enlisting the aid of nature. Birds feed on spiders, caterpillars and worms. You can encourage the presence of birds with running water, planting bushes for their protection, planting sour berry bushes for food, and by growing plants that have seeds they like to eat. Toads, snakes and spiders eat cutworms, slugs, crickets, ants, caterpillars and squash bugs. Ladybugs feast on aphids alone. Praying mantids should only be used in infestation emergencies as their diet is not selective. Trichogramma wasps lay their eggs in pests’ larvae, which eventually kill the pests. Tachinid flies are parasites that help control caterpillars, Japanese beetles, earwigs, moths, tomato worms, and grasshoppers. Syrphid flies prey upon aphids and help pollinate crops.

HAND-PICKING FOR PEST CONTROL
Labour-intensive though it may be, you can pick the pest insects from the plants manually – providing it is certain the insect is harmful and the source of the problem. Spraying is another effective method: create a tea from strong substances like garlic, onion and hot peppers to spray on plants and discourage chewing insects from eating the stems, leaves and fruits. Mild soap solutions (not detergents) asphyxiate tender bugs when sprayed.

1:d,vi) GRAINS

Grains are a necessary crop to grow for human consumption of wheat, oats, barley, rye and buckwheat, while hay is a major supplement to farm animals over colder months. Generally grains are easy to grow provided the soil has been prepared adequately before planting. On average, a 20 foot by 55 foot plot of land will supply wheat for 4 people for one year.

SOWING WINTER GRAINS
WINTER CROPS: winter wheat, barley, and other hardy crops can be sown in early fall, allowed to grow a little, then go dormant over the winter; in the spring, the crops shoot up and are ready for harvest in mid-summer.

SPRING CROPS: hardy or delicate crops, including spring wheat, can all be sown at the end of the last frost in early spring and are ready for harvest in early fall.

Soil should ideally be prepared as outlined in section 1:3, and at the very least should be well-tilled and fortified with green manure or compost. To sow seeds, use a broadcasting method of scattering the seeds by hand. To ensure even coverage, scatter at a 45 degree angle while walking up one side of the plot, then return down scattering at the opposite angle over the first scattering. After sowing, till or rake the soil to work the seeds in.

Rotate the location of your grain plots from year to year to avoid soil depletion, varying the type of grain grown in the prepared land. A typical rotation plan, year to year, might be corn the first year, followed by alfalfa, then winter wheat, then vegetables, then soybeans, then hay pasture, etc.

GROWING GUIDE FOR MAJOR GRAINS
WHEAT: Requires a cool, moist growing season and two months of hot, dry weather for ripening. Winter wheat is sown in late-September, and spring wheat along with other crops.

OATS: A hardy crop that produces high-protein grain. Thrives in a cool, moist climate and cannot tolerate drought. Sown as a spring crop and harvested into shocks and left to dry on the field.

RYE: Can be used for green manure and as a cover crop, as well as a grain for making bread and feeding farm animals. Sown in the fall, this crop does well in poorer soil and tolerates cold, drought and dampness.

BUCKWHEAT: This crop prefers moist, acid soil and hot weather. Matures rapidly (60 to 90 days) and can be sown in the same plot as winter wheat once the wheat is harvested.

BARLEY: Requires a long, cool ripening season and moderate moisture. Plant in early spring. Excellent dietary staple for humans and farm animals.

CORN: Many varieties of corn exist, though generally corn for eating fresh is of the sweet variety while “field corn” used for making flour is not sweet. Ready for harvest after the plants are dead and dry. Ears of corn should be husked and stored away from rain and mold immediately.

HARVESTING WHOLE GRAINS
After the grain has been cut, gather the stalks into sheaves and stack them to dry in the field, in groups of 3 sheaves leaning against each other vertically, until no trace of green is left.

To thresh the grain (remove grains from stalks), lay the sheaves on a sheet over a hard surface and hit the seed heads with a stick to knock the seeds loose. To separate the grain from the chaff (outer husk), toss the grains up in the sheet on a breezy day, or pour grain and chaff back and forth from one container to another on a breezy day, as the wind will blow the chaff away but let the grain fall.

Store grain in a covered metal container, or wooden bin that as been rat proofed with wire mesh (scavenged or reclaimed). Stored grain must be kept thoroughly dry to prevent mold.

1:d,vii) MASTER CHARTS

BC = broadcast (scattered)

HEMP CULTIVATION
Hemp is a cannabis plant from the same family as marijuana, and as such there were once laws in place that forbade the production of both plants. Now, the many benefits of producing hemp have been recognized by the authorities and it is now encouraged to produce due to its many values. As well, the myth that hemp was an intoxicant has been debunked, the THC levels in industrial hemp are so low that no one could get high from smoking it. Moreover, hemp contains a relatively high percentage of another cannabinoid, CBD, that actually blocks a marijuana high. Therefore hemp has come to be known as "antimarijuana."

Hemp is one of the most versatile plants know to humankind. Its fibers can be used for textiles, rope and paper. Its seeds are an extremely healthful food in whole form or as a naturally omega-rich unsaturated oil, which can also be used as fuel in oil-burning lamps or stoves. One hectare of seed hemp produces 1000 to 1500 liters of hemp oil plus several thousand kilos of fiber. Hemp plants are easy to grow and can generally follow the same guides as used for the sesame plant.

NOTE: It is strongly advised to refrain from cultivating marijuana plants as these are still outlawed. The discovery of any marijuana grow operations can result in a seisure of property and land which would have detrimental effects if it is also land being used for vital food production.

Read the next section, Composting...

Composting

2007-09-12T19:09:00.000-04:00

Composting is the process of recycling natural materials by decomposition. This is an imperative process for several reasons. One is that it enriches soil for growing food by adding essential nutrients that might otherwise be absent from the soil. Another is that there is no place for waste in the closed system of our city, and is an important part of Toronto’s need for sustainability and zero waste. The most efficient way to produce compost is in a bin or container to keep the material from spilling out, while piling vertically to an ideal height of 4 feet.

1:e:ii) LAYERS AND METHODS

Compost is created by combining dry vegetation (such as grass, dead leaves, etc) and green vegetation (raw or cooked food scraps). By adding soil to this mixture, the composting process is boosted, following this ratio (by weight):

2 parts dry vegetation + 2 parts green vegetation + 1 part soil

Compost builds up in layers in the following order:

5th LAYER & UP: repeat 2nd, 3rd and 4th layers upward
4th LAYER: 2-3” soil (can include manure, animal droppings, feathers, hair, dried blood)
3rd LAYER: 3-6” green vegetation
2nd LAYER: 3-6” dry vegetation
1st LAYER: 2-3” coarse material (cornstalks, twigs, straw, or sawdust)
GROUND LEVEL: loosened soil

To have dry and green vegetation available uncombined, use large outdoor containers to store accumulating dry vegetation, while green vegetation can be collected from kitchens or stored outdoors until needed.

As each layer is added, water it thoroughly so the pile is evenly moist — like a wrung-out damp sponge that does not give excess water when squeezed. Water the surface of the compost pile whenever the farm garden is watered. On rainy days it may be necessary to cover the compost pile to prevent drowning the microbes that decompose the vegetation.

The compost pile should be turned once a week to aerate it, which speeds decomposition, combats odour, and mixes the material so that it will decay at a uniform rate. Compost is ready when material has turned brown and crumbly and gives off no heat or odour.

1:e:ii) LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURES

Compost piles can be a pit in the ground or a pile above the ground. Above ground is preferable, and no special structures are needed although a large wire mesh pen will help keep the pile from spilling over and can help deter rodents (see graphic below). Using wooden stakes driven into the ground at regular intervals, nail or staple a wire mesh all the way around, preferably finding a weave that is too small for rats to crawl through.

The location of the pile is best under trees, especially oaks, otherwise other deciduous trees work well. In the absence of trees, select areas that are shady and protected from wind, as sun and wind dry out the moist piles.

Read the next section, Seeds...

Seeds

2007-09-11T19:10:00.000-04:00

Saving seeds each season is vital to continuing food production from year to year. In 2012 the Toronto Seed Bank was founded to properly store all non-genetically modified food and medicinal plant seeds, and has since set up storage and distribution sites throughout the city for community use. Information on TSB locations is available at every neighbourhood communication center (see section 8:a:i). Some herbs and vegetables, including potatoes and rhubarb, reproduce from propagation instead of from seeds, and plants grown from seed vary greatly in method of seed saving. Following are some basic guidelines.

1:f:i) COLLECTING & SAVING SEEDS

After the first crop, hold back part of the crop for seed. Be sure the seed is well matured, whole, healthy and young.

Fruited plants such as melons, tomatoes, green peppers and eggplant make their seeds inside the fruit. Allow the seed-bearing fruit get fully ripe, then scoop out the seeds and let them dry in open air, spread out into a thin layer on cloth or old paper.

Most other vegetables contain their seeds in the flowers. Many plants will only produce flowers if allowed to “go to seed” rather than get harvested earlier on, such as with herbs, lettuce and cruciferous vegetables. Snip off the flower heads and dry the heads. Store in a dry place for winter, and in the spring break apart the head to extract the seeds.

DRYING GRAIN FOR SEED
For seed, the grain should dry in the shock for a month or more before threshing, to ensure it is completely free of moisture. (When stored in a pile, threshed grain that is not totally dry will heat up enough to destroy the seed’s fertility, but is fine for consumption).

SEED STORAGE
Once seeds are completely dry, store in containers that are clearly labeled with which plant the seed will produce. Clear glass jars work well. Seeds must not be heated or come into contact with moisture or strong light.

1:f:ii) SEED PROPAGATION

Vegetative propagation is reproducing plants any way other than by seeds. For multi-stemmed plants, dividing root clumps works well. Dig up a plant that is at least 2 years old and gently divide the roots and their connected stems.

Lemon balm, comfrey, mint and horseradish are some of the herbs that are propagated by root cuttings. Take a plant that is at least 2 years old and cut off a piece of root at least 2 inches in length.

With some shrubs, including rosemary, you can bend a branch over and cover in the middle with a layer of dirt. The covered area will eventually grow roots. When the extended plant is established it can be cut away and replanted elsewhere.

Tubers, including potatoes, send up stalks and grow flowers, but to propagate the plant it is necessary to use the actual root vegetable. For example, take a potato from a harvest and either plant it entirely in the ground, or cut into pieces — making sure each piece contains at least one eye — and plant each piece in the ground. From every eye a new plant grows.

Read the next section, Livestock & Urban Barn Conversions...

Livestock & Urban Barn Conversions

2007-09-10T19:10:00.000-04:00

Aside from the abattoirs, large-scale livestock raising is foreign to an urban center like downtown Toronto. There are no barns available so existing buildings will need to be converted into barns to raise livestock in large enough quantities to supply the general population. Building new structures is unwise because of our very limited resources, although in some cases it may be necessary to dismantle existing building structures to re-use materials in building new structures (as in the case of building outhouse privies, which can’t be converted from existing structures and need to be built in specific locations).

1:g:i) ADAPTING EXISTING STRUCTURES FOR LIVESTOCK

LARGE WAREHOUSES
Throughout the city there are abandoned warehouses at street level with very high ceilings and plenty of floor space. Despite the possibility of using these buildings as large-scale barns, it is not recommended to raise livestock on such a large scale because of the tendency for disease coupled with high levels of stress of the animals when dwelling in large, impersonal and less natural environments. Instead, these warehouses will make excellent storage facilities for grains and legumes, as well as other preservable foods.

Below is a list of addresses of empty buildings to potentially convert into storage warehouses. The buildings should not have used toxic substances while in operation (ie. auto body shops are unusable due to residual grease, oil, fumes and other industrial chemicals used and spilled on surfaces), and should be able to ventilate properly through windows or vents. Insulation is not important as cold temperatures help preserve foods, and good ventilation along with natural darkness and high ceilings will help keep cool in the hotter weather.

SMALL STRUCTURES
The key to housing livestock in the city is to convert the many thousand wooden structures in the city into coops and barns, using especially old sheds and garages found in most alleys throughout Toronto. Wooden structures are more breathable than more recent cinderblock and brick construction, and can be easily modified to suit the new animal tenants.

Several elements of these existing structures will need to be altered to suit the various livestock. The main common element is the need for proper ventilation, as all livestock requires fresh air and good circulation all year round. Another necessity is for the barn to be adjacent to a pasture or “run” area for the animals to roam free and forage for food. Some animals require little space, like chickens, but others require a much larger area, like sheep.

For large pasture lands connected to shed barns, look to areas like Trinity Bellwoods Park. On the northern edge, at Dundas St. West near Beatrice Ave., is a row of houses with the rears composed of sheds and garages at the laneway between the houses and the start of the park. This setup is an ideal model of many acres of pasture land with access to barn structures to house the animals at night and over winter.

To see how to convert various structures into barns and coops, see the shelter requirements for each type of livestock in the sections that follow to help assess the adaptabilities of neighbourhood structures.

1:g:ii) RAISING POULTRY FOR EGGS AND MEAT

Chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys are all poultry suitable for raising, though the most resourceful of these is chickens. Their meat is lean, their eggs are edible, their bones are good for soup and then can be ground for compost, and their feathers can be used for stuffing clothing and bedding.

There are three kinds of chickens: “egg” birds, “meat” birds, and “dual-purpose” birds. The best choice is the dual-purpose bird which will produce eggs for many years and then slaughtered for eating. Types of dual-purpose birds include Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire, and Wyandotte. Plymouth Rock birds are a good choice for superior meat quality and good egg production.

Birds will need to be sourced from chicken farmers outside of the city, so a convoy of transporters will need to travel to a local farm to fetch mature birds and some roosters to breed with chickens and produce fertile eggs. See section 7:a for transportation and trailer options.

HOUSING
Unlike mammals, chickens need a special kind of barn called “coops.” Requirements for a good coop are:

- adequate floor space (3 or more square feet per bird to reduce incidence of disease and stress)
- good ventilation, no drafts
- adequate natural lighting
- safety from predators

There are numerous shacks, old wooden garages, and tool sheds in alleys throughout the city that will make perfect chicken coops with very little alteration. Choose structures that face the sun, generally pointing south. Windows will be needed (and can be installed if missing), at least 1 square foot of window space for every 10 feet of floor space. Proper ventilation is also needed due to the high moisture given off by chickens (screened windows are fine). For this, install screened vents along the eaves of the roofline that can be closed off during very cold weather.

To protect from predators, make sure the chickens are in the coop by evening and lock the door and other openings. Chicken wire is a good barrier for openings with no screen. During the day there are few predators, but it helps if there are people checking up on the flock regularly.

For flooring, spread a 6- to 8-inch thick layer of sawdust, peat moss, straw or ground corncobs along the entire surface. Stir up the flooring periodically, removing soggy spots, and adding more litter every month. Sprinkle some feed on the littler to encourage the hens to stir up and aerate the litter. Once a year in the springtime, clean out all the litter from the coop (it will have built up to around 2 feet in depth) and add straight to farm earth, as it makes an excellent fertilizer with the large amounts of guano built up in it.

The coop will require roosts, located away from windows and drafts, allowing 1 foot of space per bird. Using long, round beams of 1” or 2” diameter, place each roost 2 feet up from the ground and 1 foot between each roost.

NEST BOXES

As well as roosts, the coop will require nest boxes to be built in, one box for every 4 hens. Place them in a draft-free area at the back of the coop away from the front door. Make the boxes 14 inches square and 1 foot deep , filled with wood shavings or straw (to be changed frequently to prevent soiled eggs) and with a little roof overhead to make the chickens feel safe and deter roosting on the box edge. These should be about 2 feet from the floor with a little landing dowel in front for chickens to land on as they fly up to make their way into the next boxes.

CHICKEN RUN

Aside from the coop, where the chickens go to sleep, rest, and lay their eggs, they will require a large natural area, or chicken run, connected to the coop for them to run free and feed. A run is like a pen made with 6 to 10 foot high fences made of chicken wire closing in the entire outdoor area to prevent predators from entering or chickens from escaping. Bury the bottom edge of the wire to keep digging predators out.

FOOD
Chickens can get up to 50% of their food supply by pecking on grass, bugs, grit, and other critters when ranging free in their outdoor pen. Always have a pan of fresh water available, elevated a little to avoid getting litter kicked into it.

There are 2 kinds of feed that is appropriate for hens: scratch feed (dry) and a mash mix (wet). Below are some formulas for each, to be measured by weight.

SCRATCH FEED:
Combine ingredients in a sack or pail and scatter on the ground for pecking.
50% Wheat
50% Yellow corn or Oats
(supplement with some sunflower seeds or flax seeds)

MASH MIX (in lbs per 100)
Grind all ingredients into a pulp and store in covered buckets.
60 lbs Yellow corn meal
15 lbs Wheat middlings
8 lbs soybean meal (hulled)
6.5 lbs ground limestone
4 lbs fish meal
2.5 lbs alfalfa leaf meal
2.5 lbs powdered milk
1 lb bone meal
0.5 lbs iodized salt if available

For indoor feeding, build a small trough that is narrow and long enough to accommodate 4” of space per hen for each side of the trough. Cover with chicken wire to discourage birds from scratching in the feed and soiling it. Clean water must be available at all times (elevated to avoid getting litter kicked into it) and cannot be allowed to freeze in the winter. Lack of water will drastically reduce egg production. Chickens also like milk and any vegetable or grain food scraps.

PREDATORS
Rats and mice can be a great nuisance as they love chicken feed. Keep the feed in rat-proof containers. Set out rat traps and keep cats (but protect chicks from cats). Keep dogs clear away from the henhouse or the chicken run outdoors as they love to chase and terrorize the birds. City animals that eat chickens include skunks and raccoons, and more remote animals include owls, hawks, foxes and weasels.

BUTCHERING
When deciding to butcher a bird, choose one between 3 1/2 to 5 lbs in weight, and deprive it of food, but not water, for 12 hours. Watch the roosters when stalking and catching a hen, as they will attack if harm comes to a member of the harem. Once the bird is caught, hold the bird by the legs and tie the feet together. Have a sharp axe and a chopping block (a stump works well) with 2 nails driven in and sticking up 2 inches parallel to each other and about 1 inch apart. Insert the chicken’s head between the two nails and slide the body down (the beak will stop the head and the neck will stretch). After chopping off the head, hang the bird upside-down immediately and let it bleed out completely, for about 10 minutes, then pluck off the feathers. The chicken will flap about for a while before its death.

PLUCKING
Bring a large pot of water to boil and dip the freshly-beheaded bird in the hot water for half a minute (no longer than 60 seconds). Pluck the wings first, then the breast, body, back, legs, and finally the neck. Collect the feathers in a cloth bag. Finish off the small feathers and hair by singeing with a candle flame.

RAISING DUCKS FOR EGGS, MEAT AND DOWN
Ducks are extremely hardy and will forage for most of the food they need. What they need most is lots of open space, about 1 grassy acre for every 20 birds. To prevent overgrazing, divide the area into three sections and shift the birds from one to the other as the supply of grass dwindles. Always have plenty of fresh drinking water available, in troughs deep enough for them to submerge their entire bills. They can eat the same feed as chicken scratch (mash is not as good) as well as scrap vegetables.

There is no such thing as a dual-purpose duck; good egg layers do not produce the best meat, and good meat birds will supply very few eggs. Duck eggs have a gamier flavour than chicken eggs so these are best for baking. Meat birds will grow to 8 lbs (butchering weight) in 8-10 weeks.

Housing is similar for ducks as for chickens, but ducks do not roost so no roost beams need to be installed. They need to be weather-proof and predator-proof, and kept scrupulously clean. Ducks like to swim and bathe so it’s helpful to provide a source of bathing water that is clean and not stagnated. If no natural pond is available, old bathtubs work well but the water needs to be changed frequently to prevent disease.

Nest boxes for ducks is as for chickens but larger (15” square and 18” deep) and without a little roof. These nest boxes can be set on the floor and filled with similar material as the chickens’.

1:g:iii) RAISING RABBITS FOR MEAT AND FUR

Rabbits are prolific and hardy and produce an excellent source of protein as well as fur. Rabbits are the most efficient animal to raise due to the low amount of food and care required with respect to the amount of meat they produce.

FOOD
Rabbits should eat tender hay, fresh grass clippings and vegetable tops, as well as root vegetables, apples, pears, and fruit tree leaves. Plenty of fresh water changed daily is essential. Rabbits under 6 months of age should not eat much fresh greens at all.

MATING
Rabbits are fertile almost non-stop after 6 months of age. When it’s time to breed, place a female rabbit in a male rabbit’s cage (but not the other way around as female rabbits are fiercely territorial). If mating does not take place almost immediately, remove the female rabbit and try again a few days later. Check for pregnancy after 10 days by pressing the area just above the pelvis to locate small marble-sized embryos. If there are none, check one week later and rebreed if necessary. Birth occurs 31 days after conception. 5 days before the young are due, prepare a nesting box with a good supply of straw in the bottom and place in the doe’s hutch. As soon as the young are born, feed the doe high-protein food.

HOUSING
Each rabbit should have its own cage in a hutch set-up that protects from drafts, rain, heat and predators. Each cage should be 3 feet wide by 3 feet deep and 2 feet high with mesh walls and floors. The roof should be wood and the hutch should be placed in a shady spot.

BUTCHERING
When rabbits are 8 to 12 weeks old they are ready to be butchered, at about 4 lbs in weight. For 24 hours before butchering, do not feed the rabbit, but do provide water. To kill it, hold it upside-down by the feet and administer a sharp blow directly behind its ears, using a heavy pipe or piece of wood. Immediately hang it by the feet, cut off the head and let the blood drain out. Next, cut off the feet, then slit the skin along the back legs and center of the belly. Pull the skin back, like removing a tight glove, from the thighs towards the front legs in one piece. Carefully remove the insides, saving the liver, heart and kidneys for human consumption and the rest can be fed to dogs.

1:g:iv) GOATS FOR MILK AND MEAT

Goats are idea dairy animals due to their excellent foraging ability, moderate milk production, and nutritionally superior milk which is naturally homogenized and easily digested by humans. It’s best to keep males and females separate and only mix for breeding purposes.

FOOD
Good-quality forage is all the food non-milking goats require, including a variety of leaves, branches, weeds, grasses, as well as legumes for protein. Supplement with well-cured hay in the winter. Milking does require additional protein in their diet through mixed grains of corn, oats, wheat bran and soybean oil meal. Be very careful not to overfeed grains to goats as it can cause bloat, a potentially deadly buildup of gases in the intestines. To prevent overeating of grains, only feed the grain after they’ve eaten plenty of grasses or hay. Keep a regular feeding schedule and make any dietary changes gradually. Plenty of fresh, clean water is important, especially for milking does.

HOUSING
A goat barn requires being draft free and well-bedded, with access to a fenced-in outdoor area for browsing and exercise. This outdoor area should have good drainage to prevent foot rot, and have access to shade and temporary shelter in case of wind and rain. Rocks, boulders and various structures provide exercise for jumping and climbing.

BREEDING AND MILKING
When does reach 18 months of age they should be bred once a year to ensure a continuous supply of milk. Breeding season begins in the fall and lasts through early spring. Signs of does coming into their 2-day-long heat (every 3 weeks) include restlessness, tail twitching, and bleating. Pregnancy lasts 5 months, and when the young are about to be born the does will have engorged udders, reduced feeding, more bleating, and white vaginal discharge.

Newborn kids must receive colostrum, the doe’s antibody-rich first milk. After that they should be separated from their mother and fed from a pan or bottle. Feed them 1/2 to 1/3 pint of milk three times daily for the first two weeks. Then gradually reduce the amount of milk and substitute grain and fresh green hay. Milk the goat for 6 months after giving birth, then it’s time to rebreed, at which point you can continue to milk for three more months but then allow the doe to dry off by stopping the daily milkings to give her a rest.

Milk at 12-hour intervals making sure the atmosphere calm and the doe is settled. Walk her onto a milking stand (low table) placing the head in a stanchion, where a bucket of grain should be waiting. Wipe the udder with a warm, moist cloth to clean the area and relaxes the muscles. Milk each teat alternately; when milk flow stops, gently massage the udder from top to bottom to stimulate flow, and milk again.

Cleanliness is essential for hygienic and good-tasting milk production. Keep the milking station away from feeding and bedding areas in the barn, keep the hairs around the udder clipped short, and keep the doe’s coat free of dirt by frequent brushing, as well as having the milker’s hands washed thoroughly.

1:g:v) SHEEP FOR MILK, MEAT AND WOOL

Sheep are easy to raise because of their gentle disposition, minimal shelter needs, and they graze for almost all of their food.

SHEARING

Springtime is sheep shearing time. Using hand shears, cut close to the skin and remov the entire fleece in one piece. Going back over previously clipped areas is not desireable as it produces short, unuseable fibres. The animal is held in place with the shearer's legs and knees. Shear in the order shown in the illustrations.

FOOD
Sheep can get all the nutrients they need from good-quality pasturage (grasses). Supplement with 1 pound of grains per day per sheep – such as oats, corn and wheat -- and unlimited hay in the winter season, making any dietary changes extremely gradual so as to avoid developing bloat, which can be deadly. In winter, always feed at the same times each day, once in the morning and once in the evening. Always provide plenty of fresh, clean water, plus a salt lick. Salt licks provided in the springtime assist in animal bone and muscle growth. To make a salt lick, make a depression in the ground around 5 feet in diameter, clearing it of
vegetation and debris. Spread approximately 30 pounds of salt on the ground, mixing in a small amount of the removed soil. Note that the creation and use of salt licks will depend on the amount of mineral salt available which is extremely limited.

One acre of pasture land containing equal parts tender grass and legumes will feed 4 sheep in one summer. To keep the land regenerating, rotate the grazing area 1/3 acre at a time, moving the sheep when the sheep have cropped the tops off the plants. Wait until mid- or late-spring before letting the sheep graze to give greens the chance to grow.

Fences are required around the pasturage, to keep out predators as much as to keep sheep in. Fences should be 4 feet high, made of medium weight wire, attached to heavy wooden posts staked 3 feet into the ground and no more than 15 feet apart. For extra security against predators, install a strand of barbed wire on the top and bottom of the wire fence.

HOUSING
Thanks to their thick wool coats, sheep require minimal housing and can thrive in cold weather. A three-sided shed is adequate, having at least 15 square feet of space per sheep. The floor can be dirt or concrete, but not wood, and should be covered with a foot of litter. Sheep manure is dry and can be allowed to accumulate all winter, adding warmth as well. Do change the litter if there are damp or moldy spots, otherwise once a year will do, cleaning and disinfecting the shelter at that time.

1:g:vi) PIGS FOR MEAT AND FAT

Hogs are easy to raise because they will eat almost anything, and are ready for butchering within the year.

FOOD
Pigs can be fed leftover produce, table scraps, or an oversupply of crops or goat’s milk, and are also fine grazing from the pasture. Up to 6 pigs can forage on 1 acre of high-quality pasture including clover, grass and alfalfa. Rotate the pigs on 1/3 or 1/4 of the pasture at a time to allow the field to regenerate. Grains including corn, oats, barley and rye are a good supplement to the pigs’ diet. When feeding leftovers, they must be processed first by picking through the food to remove inedible items, chicken bones and pork scraps. Cook the scraps for 30 minutes to destroy any bacteria.

For each pound of weight gained by a pig, it must eat 3 pounds of feed. A pig is ready for butchering when it reaches a weight of 220 pounds in the fall. Follow the diet described above, feeding 2 to 4 pounds of grain per pig per day, to acquire a good weight gain.

SHELTER
Hogs have a hard time keeping cool, so to provide shelter from the sun while allowing the pigs to roam outside, create a moveable shelter that sits on the field and can be dragged to other areas when the pasture needs to regenerate. It’s best to set the shelter under trees in shaded areas.

Fencing is also necessary to keep the hogs in and predators out. Strong wire fencing is needed for 220 pound hogs, which can bust through weaker structures. One pig needs at least 100 square feet of space for roaming . Set posts 3 feet deep, with a strand of barbed wire 3 inches above the ground so the hogs don’t try to burrow under the wire fence.

Read the next section, Wild Food...

Wild Food

2007-09-09T19:10:00.000-04:00

As well as growing and producing food for the city's residents, there are a multitude of wild plants and animals available that grow without cultivation which can supplement the food supply considerably.

1:h:i) Fauna

It is not advisable to eat the fish caught in Lake Ontario or the Don and Humber Rivers due to toxic levels of pollution. Instead there is some game available throughout the city which, properly cooked, will serve as nourishment.

INSECTS, GRUBS AND WORMS: high sources of protein but may contain parasites. Consume by boiling or, for better palatability, finely chop and dry roast, grind to a powder to add to soups. Preferably starve the worms for a day to allow the dirt in their bodies to come out. For snails, starve for several days to remove toxins from their bodies.

ANTS: most ants contain formic acid, cook for at least 6 minutes to destroy the poison.

GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND CICADAS: remove heads, wings and legs before roasting or boiling. Trap by laying a wool blanket at night in a grassy field and gather in the morning.

PIGEONS AND DOVES: wash well and de-feather before cooking thoroughly, either in a fire or soup. Use feathers for filling coats and bedding.

DUCKS AND GEESE: as per poultry. Use feathers for filling coats and bedding.

SQUIRRELS: cleaned, skinned and quartered, good for frying or in stews.

RACCOONS: cleaned, skinned and chopped, good for stews or in a fire. Use pelt for boots, hats and mitts.

FLORA

PINE NEEDLES: boiled into a tea, serves as an excellent source of Vit C to prevent scurvy and boost immunity.

DANDELION: leaves and flowers boiled into a tea is a health-boosting bitter and liver tonic. Fresh leaves, eaten raw or cooked, are also a healthful addition to the diet.

GRASSES: slowly pulling up blade reveals the edible white flesh that is usually just below the surface of the ground. Avoid eating the tough greens and rough edges.

GRASS SEEDS: All grass seeds are edible, but use the Edibility Test on unknown seeds. Discard grains that are blackened or carry black bean-like grains (these are infected and toxic).

ROOTS AND TUBERS: wash and cook all roots and tubers for better digestibility.

TREE BARK: peel off a large section of bark, but do not cut bark from more than halfway around the tree or you might kill the tree. The light-coloured layer of inner bark is the edible portion. Consume raw or cook like spaghetti or dry and grind into a powder. Choose from aspens, birch, slippery elm, maples, tamaracks, spruce and pines.

CHESTNUTS: collect from trees and boil or roast to eat. Can also be dried and ground into flour.

1:h:ii) GUIDE TO EDIBLE & POISONOUS PLANTS & BERRIES

In case of potential food poisoning, follow these steps:
- spit out any part of the plant that is still in the mouth
- do not induce vomiting
- take small sips of clean water
- go immediately to your community’s health station

In case of contact with a poisonous plant:
- wash the skin immediately with soap and lukewarm water
- go immediately to your community’s health station

The following plants are POISONOUS:

A
amaryllis, angel’s trumpet, arrowhead vine, autumn crocus, azalea, apple seeds, apricot seeds
B
bittersweet, black locust, boston ivy
C
caladium, calla lily, castor bean, chinese lantern plant, clematis, cotoneaster, autumn crocus, cyclamen, cherry pits, crabapple seeds
D
daffodil, daisy (chrysanthemum), delphinium, dumb cane
E
elephant’s ear, english ivy, eucalyptus, euonymus
F
foxglove
G
gladiola
H
holly, horse chestnut, hyacinth, hydrangea
I
iris
J
jack-in-the-pulpit, jequirity bean, jerusalem cherry, jimson weed
L
lark, larkspur, lily-of-the-valley, lobelia, lupine
M
milkweed, mistletoe, monkshood, morning glory, mother-in-law plant
N
narcissus, nightshade
O
oleander
P
peony, periwinkle, philodendron, poison ivy, poison oak, pokeweed, potato (greens), pothos, peach pits
R
rhododendron, rhubarb (greens), rosary bean
S
snake berry, snow-on-the-mountain, star of bethlehem, St. John’s Wort
T
tobacco, tomato (greens and whole plant and unripe fruit)
V
virginia creeper
W
water hemlock, wisteria

The following plants are NOT POISONOUS:

A
african violet, alyssum, asparagus fern, astilbe
B
baby’s breath, baby’s tears, bachelors buttons, black-eyed susans, boston fern
C
chinese evergreen, christmas cactus, coleus, coral bells, cosmos, crocus
D
dahlia, dandelion, daylily, dracaena
E
easter lily, evening primrose
F
ficus benjamina, freesia, fuschia
G
gardenia, glosinia, grape hyacinth
H
hens and chicks, hibiscus, hollyhock, honey locust, hoya
I
impatiens
J
jade plant
M
maple (seeds and young leaves), marigold, money plant, mountain ash, mulberry
P
peperomia, persian violet, petunia, phlox, poinsettia, polka-dot plant, portulaca, prayer plant, primrose, purple coneflower
R
rose, rubber plant
S
schefflera, snapdragon, spider plant, spiraea, statice
T
tulip
W
wandering jew, weeping fig, weigela
Y
yucca
Z
zinnia

The following is a guide to reduce chances of mushroom poisoning:
- poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms grow together, and only a mushroom expert (mycologist) can tell the difference
- it is dangerous to eat any mushroom found outdoors
- cooking mushrooms does not make them safe to eat
- consuming even small parts of some mushrooms can cause sickness and death
- after eating a poisonous mushroom, it may take several hours for illness to become evident
- in case of dubious mushroom consumption, go immediately to your community’s health center
- remove all mushrooms growing in the community to prevent accidental consumption by children or adults unaware of the danger of poisoning

1:h:iii) EDIBILITY TEST

When in doubt of whether a plant or berry is edible, take this test without skipping a single step, being patient and thorough. Do not use the edibility test for mushrooms. Mushrooms must be positively identified. Even the smallest amounts of poisonous mushrooms can be lethal. Do not eat plants with milky sap, except for dandelions.

STEP 1: SMELL
Crush part of the plant. If it smells like almonds or peaches do not eat.

STEP 2: SKIN IRRITATION
Crush part of the plant. Rub some of the juice onto the inside of your arm. Reject this plant if you experience any discomfort, rash, swelling or burning.

STEP 3: MOUTH TEST
Only if the test plant passed the first 2 tests, proceed with the mouth test with caution. Spit out and reject the test plant at the first sign of burning, swelling, irritation, nausea, dizziness or stomach ache.
Crush part of the plant and place a small amount of it on your lips for 10 seconds. If no ill effects, place a pea-sized portion in a corner of your mouth for 10 more seconds. Then move it to the tip of your tongue for 10 more seconds. Then move it under your tongue for 10 more seconds. If no ill effects, chew the substance and hold it in your mouth for an entire 15 minutes. Then spit it out and wait 5 hours watching for any ill effects.

STEP 4: FIRST SWALLOW TEST
If no ill effects after 4 hours, chew and swallow one teaspoon-sized bite. Wait 10 hours while fasting – consume no drink or food during this period.

STEP 5: SECOND SWALLOW TEST
If no ill effects after 10 hours, eat about 1/3 cup of this plant. Wait 24 hours. If no ill effects, you may consider this plant non-poisonous.

Read the next section, Beekeeping & Honey Production...

Beekeeping & Honey Production

2007-09-08T19:11:00.000-04:00

Honey is an excellent source of energy, as well as an effective antiseptic, that requires little human and fuel energy to produce. Unlike maple syrup, it requires no processing once harvesting. One hive can produce around 30 lbs of honey per year, enough for about 5 adult males.

Although bee hives can be made out of anything hollow, building a standard box hive makes it possible to harvest the honey without needing to destroy the structure. The hive consists of open boxes called supers (from superhives) in which the frames are hung. As bee populations grow and more room is needed, extra supers are stacked on top, building upwards.

1:i:i) BUILDING A BEE HIVE

HIVE LOCATION
As bees feed on forage plants and flowers, select a location within a 1-2km radius of plants. Bees like alfalfa, clover, dandelion and sage blossoms.

In setting up, prevent mold and disease from a damp environment by placing the hive in a spot with good drainage, such as on a gentle slope. Avoid hollows or low spots where water can collect. It can help to raise the hive above the ground on bricks as well.

The hive should be sheltered from wind, as even a mild breeze can chill the bees. An effective windbreak for the winter months is important. At the same time, the hive requires enough sunlight to keep warm, maintaining a temperature of 34oC. In excessive heat, the hive needs shade to prevent overheating.

1:i:ii) GATHERING AND TENDING TO BEES

Wear protective clothing when tending to bees. A broad-rimmed hat with wire veil will protect the head, face and neck. Light-coloured coveralls and long-sleeved shirt will protect from stings and not agitate bees. Wear loose-fitting gloves and stout boots to protect hands and feet. Equipment needed includes a smoker for quieting bees, a hive tool to pry open frames, and a large kitchen knife. To extract honey more effectively from the frames, you can build a centrifugal extractor to spin the frames within a metal drum to collect honey from the sides.

Begin with a small swarm of bees either captured in the wild or acquired from one of the city’s existing apiaries. The queen bee should be in her own small cage box, lodged between frames near the top of the box. Remove a few frames from the box to allow bees to enter the hive. Pour the package of bees over the queen cake and the opening from the removed frames.

Use a smoker to control bees by blowing smoke where you want them to move from. Also, late afternoon and early evening is when bees are most docile.

1:i:iii) HARVESTING AND STORING HONEY

Plants yield nectar in two main flows. The spring flow starts with the blossoming of dandelions and fruit trees and lasts into July. The fall flow begins around September and ends when hard frost kills the last flowers. Honey can be extracted after each flow, especially at the end of autumn.

Honey can be extracted from the frames by letting it drip into a clean pan. For greater efficiency, build a centrifugal extractor to spin the honey out of the frame (see diagram). Harvest honey from the frames on sunny, windless days. Drive the bees away from the honeycombs by blowing a few puffs of smoke through the hive. After a few minutes, pry loose the outer cover and then the inner cover using the hive tool or crowbar and lift it off. Use more smoke as needed.

Gently pry a frame loose and remove carefully without crushing any bees. Gently brush off bees that cling to the frame. The comb is ready to be harvested if it is 80% sealed over. Take the frame to a tightly screened “room” and slice off the comb surfaces with a large, sharp kitchen knife that’s been pre-warmed in hot water. Place the frame in a pan for dripping, or use in a centrifugal extractor.

STORING HONEY

Newly extracted honey must be strained through cheesecloth to remove wax and impurities. Let the strained honey stand several days. Scrape off the air bubbles that will rise to the surface. Pour the honey into clean, dry containers with tight seals, such as mason jars. Store honey in a warm, dry room.

To prevent fermentation and slow crystallization, heat the honey to 60oC in a water bath before bottling it. Check temperature with a thermometer to prevent overheating. Note however that raw, unpasteurized honey has enormous health benefits but will crystallize in time. Crystallized honey can be liquefied by heating the jar in warm water and stirring.

1:i:iv) WINTERING THE HIVES

Over the winter, cold and lack of food can kill the bees. Leave one deep super filled with honey and polled for the bees. Supplement with syrup as needed when checking the feeder regularly. Open a 1-inch hole in the top of the super for ventilation. Wrap the hive in a layer of tar paper, fastened with tacks or staples. Leave a vent hole, stapling wire mesh over the opening and vent holes to keep mice out of the hives over the winter.

Read the next section, Food Storage & Preservation...

Food Storage & Preservation

2007-09-08T17:11:00.001-04:00

The main purpose of preserving food is to prevent rot, which can be done a number of ways. Storage methods can aid in extending the shelf-life of preserved food, and also keep it away from insects and hungry animals and rodents.

1:j:i) METHOD COMPARISON GUIDE

Different methods of food preservation can retain or destroy nutrients, and use more or less resources to process. When possible, use the method that retains most nutrients and use the least amount of wood fuel.

CANNING
Pros: can preserve any food
Cons: medium retention of vitamins; loses 25-70% Vit C; uses much fuel and water

DEHYDRATING
Pros: blanching retains some vitamins; uses no fuel
Cons: lowest retention of vitamins; loses 100% Vit C

COLD STORAGE
Pros: highest retention of vitamins; uses no fuel; doubles shelf life of canned and dried food; stores food fresh (uncooked)
Cons: not suitable for fresh meats or unprocessed dairy and soft fruits and vegetables

SOME TIPS
- Storing canned food in the dark minimizes loss of riboflavin
- Rotate preserved and stored food stocks and use up each year to avoid waste
- Keep written records of what is used and stored by date

INGROUND STORAGE
Root vegetables are already in the ground as they grow, so one effective way of preserving some varieties through the winter is to keep them in the ground. Mulch by covering with straw or leaves, tagging the spots where the plants are by driving a stick into the ground and writing on it what plant is waiting. This method is suitable for horseradish, parsnips, radishes, leeks and turnips (not suitable for beets, carrots or potatoes). Harvesting is difficult in frozen ground so is best done before and after deep winter freezing.

1:j:ii) COLD STORAGE: ROOT CELLARS AND REFRIGERATION BASKETS

Root cellars are cool and dark, two conditions which help maintain fresh foods fresh, and extend the shelf-life of preserved foods. Cold storage is simply the condition in a root cellar but applies to other structures that can be built for these purposes. Cold storage and root cellars are best for onions, beets, green tomatoes, potatoes, winter squash, pumpkins, turnips, carrots, celery, apples and other crunchy fruit.

Vegetables and fruits should not be stored together, since apples and pears give off ethylene gas which shortens shelf-life of vegetables, and fruits can absorb the strong odours of certain vegetables. Do not allow fruits and vegetables to freeze.

Cold storage can be built as outdoor pits, above ground insulated structures, or as root cellars in existing buildings with uninsulated stone or concrete basements. Below are these options and how to build them.

BUILDING A ROOT CELLAR
In an uninsulated basement, wall of an area with a northern wall. The thermal mass of the earth and the colder north-wall outside temperatures will help keep the root cellar optimally cold. A window or screened ventilation pipe will be needed to vent stale air and allow cooler air into the cellar. Place slats under wooden crates stored on the floor to allow for air circulation and prevent rot of stored vegetables. When a basement is not available, as in the case of apartment buildings or other circumstances, use old chest freezers and refrigerators outdoors, on balconies, etc. Drill a ventilation hole at a top corner and cover with screen mesh to keep out pests.

BUILDING IN-GROUND COLD STORAGE
In-ground cold storage can simply be an old refrigerator or chest freezer buried in the ground, or a garbage can. But in severe climates, the storage containers should be insulated from above with hay bales or at least 1 foot of loose snow.

BUILDING AN ABOVE-GROUND COLD STORAGE MOUND
Pile your produce into a mound on the ground over a layer of hay, and cover the sides with a thick layer of insulation and boards or other protective barriers as the outer layer. Make sure the top is capped to prevent moisture draining in, and allow for a vent, screened to keep out pests.

BUILDING AN ABOVE-GROUND COLD STORAGE SHACK
Building a hay-bale shack is quick and easy. Stack bales tightly in a rectangle leaving a center for storing food. Cover with a large board and top the board with more hay-bales to insulate. Regular inspection of pests is necessary with these above-ground storage designs.

BUILDING A REFRIGERATION BASKET

A bamboo refrigerator is a low-cost, non-electric, iceless device for storing food. It can be made easily using:
- A cylindrical basket made of bamboo or slender sticks of wood with an open weave
- A loose-fitting lid
- Jute cloth (burlap, coarse cheesecloth, or loose canvas)
- Metal or clay tray (circular or square)
- Stones or bricks.

Build the iceless refrigerator large enough to meet your food storage requirements. To build the refrigeration basket, start by loosely the basket with the jute cloth. Sew the jute cloth around the rim of the basket. The lower end of the cloth must hang loosely around the bottom, exceeding the length of the basket. Arrange four or five bricks or stones in a circle. Place the metal or clay tray on top. Place three to five stones (or bricks broken in half) in a circle inside the tray. Place the jute-covered basket on top of the stones in the tray. basket loose-fitting lid Fill the tray with water, making sure that the loose ends of the jute cloth dip into the water.

To use the basket, place perishable food in the basket, cover the basket with the loose-fitting woven lid, and then cover the lid with a wet jute cloth. Dampen the jute material on the top and sides periodically with clean water. The water will evapourate from the cloth, keeping the contents cool and fresh (temperature depends on environment). Place basket in a breezy, shaded area.

1:j:iii) CANNING & PICKLING

Canning is best for tomatoes, green beans, leafy greens, roasted peppers, large fruits, berries, syrups and fruit juices, as well as cooked foods like beans, stews, soups, meats, fish, fruit butters and applesauce. Pickling is best for cucumbers and cabbage but also good for eggs and mushrooms, cauliflower, green beans, beets, garlic, peppers, okra and leafy greens.

HOW TO CAN PRODUCE
Canning is a high-heat processing method of preserving foods. There are 2 ways to pack the produce into jars: raw (raw packed) or cooked (hot packed). To hot pack most fruits or vegetables, steam them or heat to boiling in juice, water or syrup, then immediately pack them into the jars. For raw packing, load clean produce tightly into jars and pour on boiling water, juice or syrup. Wipe the rim and sealing ring to remove any particles of food, then close the jar and proceed with the canning process: boiling water bath for fruits and high acid vegetables, and pressure canning for low acid vegetables. The lids will be slightly concave if the canning processing was successful – if not, begin processing from the start or store a defective batch in a cold place to consume within one to two weeks. Store jars in a cool, dark place and be sure to date and label all jars.

Vegetables and fruit must be washed and cut, (peeled and pitted if applicable); berries can be left whole. The amount of time needed to can depends on the produce being canned, and the method of canning. See chart of processing times below.

BOILING WATER BATH CANNING
Fill a large pot halfway with hot water, load jars in a metal (canning) basket and put inside. Add boiling water to 2 inches above the jars (do not pour directly onto jars). Cover, bring to a rolling boil and begin timing. Add more boiling water as needed if level begins to drop due to evaporation. When processing time is up, immediately remove each jar individually with tongs. Check that lids are tight, and cool with space between the jars.

PRESSURE CANNING
For this process a pressure cooker is needed, and pressure canning is the only safe method of preserving low acid vegetables by canning.

Place a round cooking rack at the bottom of the pressure cooker. Pour in 2 to 3 inches of boiling water. Place jars on the rack making sure jars don’t touch sides or each other. Fasten the pressure cooker lid and make sure heat is high. Once steaming begins, time 10 minutes. By then the first inch of the steam jet should be nearly invisible, now close the vent. At 8 pound pressure let the heat die down slightly. When the pressure reaches 10 pounds, begin timing. Hold this pressure for the full canning period, it is imperative that the pressure never fall below 10 pounds while canning for the time allotted. If at any time the pressure falls below 10 pounds, begin the process over again from the beginning. When time is up, remove the pressure cooker from the heat and let cool. When pressure is zero, open the vent, then the lid. Remove the jars and let cool leaving spaces between the jars. Tighten lids if necessary.

PROCESSING TIMES
The following processing times are for quart jars.
(HP=Hot Pack & RP=Raw Pack in a boiling water bath)
(PC=Pressure Canning)

Apples: 20 min (HP)
Apricots: 25 min (HP); 30 min (RP)
Asparagus: 25 min (PC)
Beets: 35 min (PC)
Berries: 15 min (HP); 15 min (RP)
Carrots: 30 min (PC)
Cherries: 15 min (HP); 25 min (RP)
Corn: 90 min (PC)
Lima Beans: 50 min (PC)
Peaches: 25 min (HP); 30 min (RP)
Pears: 25 min (HP); 30 min (RP)
Plums: 25 min (HP); 25 min (RP)
Potatoes: 40 min (PC)
Pumpkin: 90 min (PC)
Rhubarb: 10 min (HP)
Sauerkraut: 20 min (HP); 20 min (RP)
Snap beans: 25 min (PC)
Tomatoes: 45 min (HP); 50 min (RP)
Tomato juice: 35 min (HP)
Winter squash: 90 min (PC)

HOW TO PICKLE VEGETABLES
Pickling preserves vegetables using vinegar and salt for vegetables or sugar for fruit. Without sugar available only vegetables can be pickled, but for long-term storage they also need to be boiled in a water bath once canned (see Canning above).

Prepare a brine mixing 1/2 gallon of water and 1/3 cup of salt. Clean and scrub vegetables thoroughly and be sure the containers and utensils are impeccably clean as well.

Soak 4 pounds of vegetables overnight in brine solution, then drain and pack into 1-quart jars. Divide whole garlic cloves and heads of dill among the jars, adding 2 teaspoons of mustard seeds in each one. In a pot, mix together 1 1/2 cups of vinegar, 3 tablespoons of salt and 3 cups of water and bring to a boil. Pour boiling hot mixture over the cucumbers and fill to 1/2 inch from the top of the jars. Cover with lids and process closed jars in boiling water for 20 minutes. Cool thoroughly with several inches between each jar.

CANNED FOOD SAFETY
Bot, the toxin that causes botulism, can develop in canned foods and is so lethal that even a touch of the affected food to your lips can be deadly. Luckily, it is easily destroyed with heat. Before opening any canned food, boil the entire unopened jar for 15 minutes.

1:j:iv) DRYING, CURING & SMOKING

Drying is the most nutrient-damaging method of preserving foods, but can add diversity to food supply and flavours, such as with dried fruits, sun dried tomatoes, dried herbs. Smoking applies to meats only and although it has been found that smoke in foods is a likely carcinogen, it is an effective and tasty way of preserving food for indefinite lengths of time.

BUILDING OUTDOOR DRYING TRAYS

To help retain as much nutrient content as possible, blanch the fruits or vegetables before drying. Cut, slice or leave whole and either boil or steam for 2 minutes (apples, pears and peaches require 5 minutes, and grapes do not require blanching). Use trays with nylon mesh to lay produce on, to allow for ventilation. Cover drying trays
with cheesecloth or screen to keep pests off, without letting the coverings touch the produce. These can be stacked vertically.

Solar driers retain more vitamins in the produce, but require more time and materials to build them. These must lay flat and cannot be stacked vertically.

CURING
Curing retards spoilage by drawing water out of meat using salt, which also kills microorganisms. Two methods exist for curing meats: dry-curing and brine-curing. Brine-curing requires the use of sodium nitrites and nitrates to prevent spoilage, which are not only difficult to obtain but also carcinogens. Dry-cured meats store well but will be tough and dry, in which case honey can be added for flavour and keep the meat moist. After curing meats they need to get smoked (see below).

To dry-cure meat, rub a mixture of salt and seasoning (including sugar, honey, spices, herbs) directly onto the meat, rubbing well and pressing extra salt and seasoning into grooves, on cut ends, and around protruding bones.
Cover the bottom of a curing box (see below) with a thick layer of curing mixture and place the pieces of meat on top. Pack more mix on and between the pieces of meat, making sure each piece is well covered, especially where pieces touch. Continue layering with meat until the final piece is packed and coated. Cover the box and let sit for 3 days, then remove the pieces of meat and recoat any surfaces that are not well-coated. Check and re-cover the pieces every 5 days henceforth.

SMOKING MEAT
“Cold smoking” meats (using low-temperature smoke – 70 to 110F – achieved by
a long chimney) helps preserve meats for great lengths of time, and adds much flavour to the preserved meat. Always burn hardwood for smoking, as the resins in softwood will ruin the meats. A smoke chamber holds the meats as smoke enters the chamber from a fire pit 10 feet away through an underground tunnel (chimney).

1:j:v) MAKING YOGURT, BUTTER & CHEESE

A high source of fat and calcium, milk from cows, goats and sheep can be consumed after a quick boil but will not keep for more than a day in the summertime (though can be frozen in winter as long as temperatures stay cold). To have dairy accessible for consumption throughout the year, it needs to be preserved in the form of yogurt (consume within 1 week), butter (keeps several months), or cheese (lasts from 2 weeks up to several years).

YOGURT
Milk spoils quickly without refrigeration, but with friendly bacteria milk can be turned to yogurt which will keep for several days. To make yogurt, heat a quart of whole milk to 150F without boiling. Cool down to 105F and add 2 tablespoons of existing yogurt and mix well. Cover and keep in a warm place or wrapped in thick towels until thickened, about 24 to 48 hours. Keep cold.

BUTTER
In warm or hot weather, butter will not keep without refrigeration, therefore butter will need to be clarified for it to last several months. In cold weather, keep fresh butter in a cool place, or freeze in an outdoor cellar.

To make 1 pound of butter, about a gallon of cream will be required. Cow’s milk separates easily into cream, simply pour milk into a tall container in a cool location for 24 to 48 hours to allow the cream to float to the top. Place the cream in a large jar, close tightly and churn by rolling it around on the floor or shaking it for about half an hour. When the cream has separated into butter and buttermilk, drain the buttermilk into a separate container through a strainer to catch pieces of butter. (Save the buttermilk for cooking, baking, or using in cheese making.) Rinse the butter a few times with clean cold water until the rinse runs clear. Mix about 3/4 ounce of salt per pound to help reserve the butter. Knead the butter by gathering it into a ball, then pressing it out into a thin layer, repeating until all the water is worked out and salt is worked in. Store in a cold or cool place. To keep for 1 month without refrigeration, immerse in a salt water brine containing enough water to float an egg. For longer preservation, clarify by simmering the finished butter (salting not essential) on a low heat for 30 minutes, avoiding browning, smoking or burning. Skim off the scum as it forms, and when the butter looks totally clear, strain through several layers of clean cheesecloth into a scalded jar. (Scalding kills bacteria which would spoil the clarified butter). Store in a cool place.

CHEESE
Cleanliness, accurate temperature control and lots of milk are required for successful cheese making. Keep all utensils scrupulously clean and avoid contaminating with dirty fingers, washing hands each time before handling the curd. Never use aluminum or cast iron materials, choose stainless steel or enamel pots and wooden utensils. 1 pound of semi-hard cheese will require about 5 quarts of milk, but for best results make a 3 pound ball using 12 to 15 quarts of whole milk.

1) RIPENING THE MILK
Add 1 cup of buttermilk to 4 quarts of milk. Let sit at room temperature for 24 hours. Add the quart to 15 gallons of milk (raw or pasteurized) that has been warmed to 86F. Let ripen for 1 to 2 hours. To pasteurize milk, heat to 145F and hold for 30 minutes to, then cool rapidly to 86F.

2) CURDLING THE MILK
Keep milk at 86F and rennet: eight 1-inch squares for 15 gallons of milk. Stir thoroughly, then cover and hold at 86F for 30 minutes until milk curdles. If the curd has the consistency of yogurt, it is not done yet.

3) CUTTING THE CURD
Using a long clean knife, cut all the way through the curd in a crisscross pattern spaced about 1/2 inch apart. Cut the curd horizontally into 1/2 inch cubes, sticking your clean or gloved hand in the curd to do this.

4) HEATING THE CURD
Stir the curd gently for a few minutes, then slowly heat to 102F. Stir constantly to avoid burning the bottom. It should take 30 to 60 minutes to reach 102F. During this time, a yellowish liquid (whey) will start separating from the curds. Hold at 102F for about half an hour until the curds reach a desired firmness. Text by squeezing and quickly releasing a handful of curds – if they are elastic and tend not to stick together, they are done.

5) REMOVING WHEY AND ADDING SALT
Place cheesecloth over a large colander and pour the curds into the colander. Save the whey for bread, animals or composting. Once the curds are well drained, sprinkle with 2 tablespoons of salt and mix well.

6) PRESSING THE CHEESE
Tie the ends of the cheese cloth together to make a bag and place in a cheese press (see below). Press for about half an hour under light weights (10-15 lbs), then increase to heavy weights (40-60lbs) and press for 16 to 20 hours.

7) DRYING THE CHEESE
Remove the cheesecloth and bandage the cheese with a clean dry cloth. Set in a cool dry place and turn it every day as it dries, until it forms a hard rind. If it shows signs of molding, rub with butter and cut the mold away before waxing.

8) WAXING THE CHEESE
Wrap your cheese in one or two layers of clean cheesecloth. Melt 1 to 2 pounds of wax to almost boiling, and brush or dip the wheel in the wax.

9) CURING THE CHEESE
Keep the wheel in a cool dry place while it cures. Turn every few days to discourage molding, and wash the shelf to keep it clean and free of mold. Cure for 6 weeks for a mild flavour, or 4 to 6 months for sharp cheese. If the cheese starts to swell, that indicates a bad bacteria invaded the cheese and has ruined the wheel.

MAKING RENNET

Rennet is a curding agent that is the salt extract of a suckling calf (a calf, pig or lamb that has eaten no grass or solid food, only mother’s milk). Rennet comes from the abomasum, the 4th and largest stomach in the calf. Remove the abomasum, wash thoroughly, salt it, cut it into strips and dry out as in making jerky. Store in a dry container until needed. To make cheese with calf rennet, cut off 1-inch squares, adding 2 squares to every gallon of milk.

MAKING A CHEESE PRESS

Cut a flat board into two 1x1” squares. Clamp the squares together and drill pilot holes centered 1 inch from the sides of each corner, then separate the boards and enlarge the pilot holes to 3/4 inch in one board and 1/2 inch in the other. Cut a 1/2 inch dowel into four 10-inch lengths and glue them into each of the 1/2 inch holes. Slip the other board (with the 3/4 inch holes) over the dowels to hold them in position while the glue dries. Use sterilized 10- or 15-lb and 40- or 60-lb dumbbell weights (boiled for 10 minutes) wrapped in cloth as weights.

1:j:vi) MAKING VINEGAR

Vinegar has a variety of uses, including preserving foods and also cleaning. To make apple cider vinegar, the first step is to make cider and the second is to turn it into vinegar.

MAKING CIDER
Collect a variety of apples, tart and sweet, fallen or hanging, but avoid wormy, molded or rotting apples. Crabapples work as well but should be less than 1/4 of the total apples. Wash thoroughly and remove stems, leaves and the end of the blossom (bottom button of the apple). Chop the apples and grind them to as fine a pulp as possible, using a food mill or rolling pin. This may require a few passes, and save any juices to add to the cider. The pulp is called pomade.

The pomace must now be pressed to extract the cider. Scoop the pomace in a clean white pillowcase and place in a cider press (see below). Going slowly, apply a bit of pressure until juice starts to flow, wait for it to stop, then apply more pressure. Filter all the cider through several layers of cheesecloth to clarify it and improve storage quality. Store into clean glass bottles or jars with non-metal lids. Clean all equipment and materials thoroughly before and after use.

Cider is ready to drink at this point, but to make vinegar follow as below.

MAKING A CIDER PRESS
Using a car jack multiplies muscle power in this press. Because of the force that will be applied, it’s important to make the frame strong. Build a platform slightly larger than a large tray that will be used to collect the juice. This tray should fit the pillowcase and have an opening for the juice to drip out of. Bolt 2x8s on either side of the platform, and a top for the car jack to press up against. Ideally the car jack would be bolted to the top as well as to a flat board that will press down on the pomace, but you can also assemble the setup each time.

MAKING CIDER VINEGAR
Open a bottle or jar of cider and let stand at about 20oC. After about 5 weeks it will turn to hard cider, then to vinegar. When a cloudy clump of bacteria forms on the surface of the vinegar, carefully skim this off and save for making more cider. This bacteria is called “mother” and if mixed in to fresh cider will speed up the vinegar-making process to about 2 weeks instead of 6.

1:j:vii) MAKING OIL

Oils are valuable for use in cooking and food preservation as well as for making soaps and detergents. They can be extracted from a variety of nuts and seeds including sesame, safflower, sunflower, canola, apricot kernel, pumpkin seed and walnut. Sunflowers are a good choice because of the high yield of seeds and relative ease of plant maintenance, requiring little care. They have a soft shell and high oil content, the all black seeds being much better than the striped seeds. Good sunflower seeds can have the shell cracked with the fingers, and the seed inside should fill the shell completely. Hard, striped shells and small seeds yield little oil.

RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION
Dry thoroughly before bagging and storing for making oil. Damp seeds will feel humid and possibly warm when you bury your hand in it. Seeds that are damp can be dried in the sun by spreading out the seeds thinly on plastic. In the evening, pile the seed up to keep it from absorbing moisture in the cool night air, and spread out again in the morning. After two or more sunny days, the husks will be dry. Now bag the seed and store for a week. In that time, the moisture in the seed will be drawn into the dry husk, and the entire seed will become evenly dry. Discard all moldy seeds.

Remove the husks and separate the seeds from the chaff (all waste can be composted or added to livestock feed). Clean the seeds making sure it has no fine dust, chaff bits, dirt, sand or stones. Winnowing is an easy way to clean the seeds: on a day when there is a steady breeze, spread a cloth on the ground and drop the seeds from a container to the cloth. The chaff and dirt will blow away, but stones must be picked out by hand.

Warm or hot seeds yield the most oil. To warm the seeds, choose a sunny day and lay black plastic on the ground, spreading the seeds thinly on the sheet, and cover with a sheet of clear plastic. When a handful of seeds is uncomfortably hot (around 150F) the seeds are ready.

EXTRACTION
Oils can be extracted with an oil press, an expeller, or large mortar and pestle. If a Komet oil expresser or Taby press is available this will speed the process. The simplest manual method is to make a “butter” by mashing the nuts or seeds to a smooth, fine pulp using a mortar and pestle, transferring to a container and waiting for the oil to naturally separate and rise to the surface. Pour off this oil and store in a clean jar in a cool, dark place.

SEED CAKE BYPRODUCT
The fibrous meal left behind after extracting oil is called seed cake and is an excellent additive to animal feed. Pack and store carefully to prevent rancidity. Sesame seed cake is the only meal suitable for human consumption as well.

CLARIFICATION
If using an oil press or expeller, clarifying is an extra step that removes contaminants from the pressed oil such as fine pulp, water or resins. After collecting the oil into containers, allow to stand undisturbed for a few days, then remove the clear upper layer. If it needs further clarification, filter the oil through a fine filter cloth.

PACKING AND STORING
Before packing the oil you can heat it to drive off traces of water and destroy any bacteria. To pack, use clean dry containers, such as sealed glass or plastic bottles. Coloured containers in a dark box help increase shelf life, which is around 6 to 12 months if properly packaged and kept away from heat and sunlight.

1:j:viii) MAKING FLOURS

To make flour you will need to locate a grain mill or grinder that clamps onto a tabletop. Any cured grain can be milled into flour, including rye, wheat, corn, rice, barley and oats, as well as soybeans, chestnuts, peanuts, lentils and dried peas. Corn is the hardest of all grains to grind, but making sure all grains are thoroughly dry will help.

Most grinders are adjustable for “fine” or “coarse” grinding. “Grits” are made by cracking grain on a coarser setting (sifting will separate find grind from the grits). Grits are cooked in water or milk and are highly nutritious. Finder grinds produce “cake” flour to about 50% more volume than the whole grain.

STORING MILLED GRAINS
Fresh ground flour does not have a long shelf-life due to the natural oils present which go rancid. Freezing is the only way to save flour for longer periods but winter cold fluctuates and is not a reliable way to preserve it. Best is to grind only as much flour as is needed for no more than one week. Store small quantities in a glass jar, and larger quantities in metal or plastic cans with fitted lids.

1:j:ix) SALT

Salt is an essential mineral for human life. Although salts exist naturally in foods, they are not in high enough quantities to extract to use for food preservation. For a landlocked city like Toronto, with Lake Ontario having no salt and only pollutants and contaminated flora and fauna, our only sources of salt are from the earth to be mined. Mines are already established in locations throughout the country, but the closest one to this city is in Goderich, which is 220 km west. Transport will need to be organized yearly to ensure being well-stocked to meet all the communities’ salt needs. (See Chapter 7: Transportation.)

1:j:x) MAKING YEAST & SOURDOUGHS

Many kinds of breads can be made without the use of yeast or sourdoughs, including chapatis, pancakes, rotis, injera, scones, biscuits, tortillas, muffins and lefses. Yeast is a dormant plant with millions of cells that grow and multiply when placed in warm water and is fed sugar and flour. The carbon dioxide byproduct is what makes dough rise. It is best to make bread in a bakery where wild yeasts in the air can mix with dough to help leavening. Sourdough is a fermented flour mixture that also produces gasses which help dough rise, and is a health food.

YEAST
To make yeast, mix together 1 cup of cooked mashed potato, 1/4 cup of sugar, 2 teaspoons of salt and 1 cup of warm water (105F to 115F). Pour into a 1-quart glass jar, cover with a cloth and leave in a warm place (80F to 85F) for two days until mixture ferments and bubbles up. One cup of this yeast is needed to make 1 loaf of bread. As each cupful is subtracted, replenish this yeast starter by stirring in 3/4 cup of flour and 3/4 cup warm potato water, water or milk, allowing another day to ferment. Keep cool and use 1 cup per week, replenishing as described.

SOURDOUGH
Making sourdough requires catching wild yeasts in the air, which may or may not occur and can yield unpredictable results, from flat, moldy, bad smelling bread, to leavened and tasty bread. Making bread in a bakery will raise the odds of catching wild yeasts.

A milk and water sourdough starter combines 1 cup unpasteurized milk with 1 cup of flour. Cover with a light cloth and keep in a warm place for two days until mixture ferments. Keep alive as for yeast (above) or dry out and store for up to 5 months, mixing with 1 cup lukewarm water, 1/2 cup of flour and 1 teaspoon of sugar. Let stand in a warm place until it foams, then it’s ready to use.

Read the next section, Water Collection & Transportation...

Collection & Transportation

2007-09-08T07:28:00.000-04:00

Pollution is the main factor concerning water sources in the city, but unfortunately this problem is widespread. Drilling wells in the city is not an option due to the major network of underground sewage, electrical and subway systems. With a lack of functional plumbing and running water, it will need to be collected using various methods and then purified in a 2-step process, first with a communal filtration and then boiling in smaller batches.

2:a:i) COLLECTING RAINWATER

Every building with eavestroughs should have barrels under the gutter downspouts to collect rainwater. The barrel should have a mesh covering to filter out leaves and keep out rodents, and should always be covered with a lid when it’s not raining.

For larger systems of collecting rain water, several barrels can be connected together with hoses or pcv pipes near the bottom of each barrel. To easily drain the water for use, either attach a small pump at the top of one of the barrels, or afix an open hose to the bottom of one, with a mechanism to open and close the flow.

FILTRATION
Collected rainwater will have various contaminants, including silt, debris, bird droppings, dust, insects, and other natural materials. If the water collected is to be used for irrigation, no filtration is required and in fact natural materials add to the richness of this soft water for soil and plants.

To filter the larger particles, build a filter at the end of the barrel hose or at the pump, consisting of fine mesh at the bottom of a funnel topped with a thick layer of clean gravel. See section 2:2 below for details on further purifying water for human consumption.

SAFETY AND MAINTENANCE
Barrels or containers for collecting water must always be covered to prevent children and small animals from drowning in the water. A fine mesh covering in addition to a solid lid will help prevent drownings as well as keep out mosquitoes which breed in standing water. Water should be either used up or drained and stored within 10 days of collecting to prevent development of mosquito larvae.

In winter months when temperatures reach freezing or below, drain and disconnect the system to avoid damaging the equipment. Store the barrels upside-down and clean thoroughly before reusing.

2:a:ii) TRANSPORTING WATER
Wherever possible, water collection systems such as rain barrels should be established at every home or group of homes. This will make water easily available for boiling and individual consumption. Rain barrels should also be set up as close to farmland as possible for irrigation during dry spells.

Water will need to be transported cumbersome and long distances when collecting from a larger purification system that is not practical to have set up at each home (see 2:b:ii), as it will purify large quantities of water to be used by a greater number of people and homes. Water transportation will also be required during dry spells or the winter season when rain is not available and lake, river and creek water is the only source, which is many kilometers away from most homes.

To transport water over short distances, jugs and water bags carried by wheelbarrow or bicycle trailer will work adequately. To transport over long distances, it is more efficient to carry large amounts of water to minimize the number of trips, but must still be light enough to be carried safely. For this, the best system is by bicycle, with a trailer built specifically to hold large water bins or barrels, according to what containers are available. Carrying 1 to 2 barrels per trailer would be the limit, depending on the carrier’s ability and also the distance and hills needed to travel.

To build the trailer, use found materials like wood slats or plywood to build the base, 3 walls and a hinged door with latches. Follow the guide below to build an all-purpose trailer base out of wood.

Read the next section, Water Purification...

Water Pollution & Purification

2007-09-07T19:28:00.000-04:00

Water sources become contaminated from decades of acid rain and from industrial and agricultural runoff and sewage contamination during rainy seasons and snow meltoff. Fortunately the past few years have seen a decrease in pollution of all kinds due to the slowing down of industry, decreased use of petroleum-based materials, such as gasoline, motor oils, pesticides, etc., and most recently the complete halting of the domestic sewage system, reducing E. coli contamination in the lake. As well, thanks to the efforts of organizations such as the Lakewide Management Plan for the Great Leakes, plus the Environmental Protection Agency, phosphorous and mercury contamination since the end of the last century dwindled to nearly negligible levels. Despite these facts and the recent cessation of local sources of water contamination, the effects of pollution from this and the previous century will continue to contaminate rain and water bodies for countless years to come.

As of 2040 the waters of Lake Ontario, the Don, Rouge and Humber rivers, and the Etobicoke and Mimco creeks, are acidic but have been deemed safe for bathing, washing and irrigation. However their water must be treated before human consumption (see section 2:b:ii).

2:b:i) TESTING WATER

The safest and most effective ways to test for potentially harmful water impurities is by using a chemical test kit. These test kits contain materials and chemicals found in science labs. Check the Community section of this guide to source chemists kits necessary for checking for nitrates, iron, phospates and pH.

2:b:ii) PURIFYING WATE WITH FILTRATION AND BOILING

SLOW SAND FILTER
Begin by digging a pit 3 to 5 feet deep. Line the ditch with plastic sheeting leaving an overhang around the top edge of the pit. At the bottom of the lined pit, set up a series of perforated drain pipes connected to a small tank for a hose to rise to ground level ending at a hand pump. Place a layer of gravel and rocks over th drain pipes and then fill the pit with clean sand. (To wash sand, place a few buckets of sand in a wheelbarrow and fill with water; swirl the sand-water mixture around, then pour off the muddy water.) To use the sand filter, feed water to the sand pit until topped with water or water runs out. Wait for the water to filter down to the pipes before pumping. Boil water after filtering.

After some time, a gelatinous layer forms on the upper layer of the sand filter. Although this layer is composed mostly of friendly bacteria, it must be cleaned off and replaced with clean sand regularly.

BOILING
Each household must boil their sand-filtered water before using. Boiling kills such microorganisms as protozoa, bacteria and viruses, but cannot remove chemical or radioactive pollutants.

Bring water to a rolling boil for at least 1 minute to purify. Cool and store in clean closed containers for up to one week. If freezing, allow enough room at the tops of the containers for water to expand without bursting. Never drink directly from containers, to prevent contamination of germs or dirt into the containers.

Read the next section, Water Conservation, Storage & Heating...

Conservation, Storage & Heating

2007-09-06T19:29:00.000-04:00

Now that water has been collected and purified it needs to be conserved and stored properly.

2:c:i) ESSENTIAL vs. NON-ESSENTIAL USES OF WATER

Water use can be divided into these two categories. In periods of drought, in dry seasons, winter, and areas farthest from water sources, conservation of water is imperative.

ESSENTIAL USES OF WATER
-drinking (minimum of 2 quarts per person per day)
-cooking
-treating the sick and infirm
-livestock
-washing food containers and canning equipment
-crop irrigation in dry spells using greywater (see 2:c:iii)

NON-ESSENTIAL (OPTIONAL) USES OF WATER
-bathing (opt for sponge bathing, swimming in lake, creeks, ponds)
-laundering (limit to a minimum)
-irrigation in dry days during the rainy seasons

2:c:ii) STORING WATER

Potable water must be purified before storing (see section 2:2:ii). Store in glass or plastic containers that have been sterilized by boiling, much like when canning food (section 1:10:iii). Store containers in the coolest possible conditions out of direct sunlight. If freezing water, allow room within the container for expansion to prevent ice from expanding to the point of bursting the container. Use water up within 1 to 2 months.

Larger amounts of water for washing, irrigation, etc, can be stored in large plastic containers that have been well washed with soap. Keep covered; if no cover is available, top with cloth to prevent dirt and materials from falling in.

2:c:iii) GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS

Greywater is the term used to describe water which has already been used once, as in washing, but can be used again in another purpose, such as irrigation. In household settings, collect greywater by pouring through a filter (like a straw mat or rag) into large containers, and use promptly. Water from laundering or bathing are safe to use in fields where food is grown as the soap, which is made with natural ingredients, may actually aid in deterring pests. Water used for washing produce may be re-used by feeding livestock, or for wiping cookware or washing garments, at which point this reused water becomes greywater and can be used yet again. Filtering while collecting keeps food, hair and other particles out of the greywater, but is not essential if using as irrigation.

Because water is a precious and limited commodity, there should be no such thing as waste water. All water is either used primarily for human and animal consumption, or secondarily as irrigation and washing water.

2:c:iv) HEATING WATER

Water requires heating to a boiling point for sterilization, canning, and cooking. Any of the methods for cooking with fire or sunlight, as detailed in section 3:2, will function perfectly for boiling water. When using fire for heating water, it is preferable to save certain functions (as sterilizing containers, purifying water, canning, etc) for colder weather when the fire doubles as heating for homes. In hot weather, fire could be prepared outdoors and doubled with a smokehouse for preserving meats (see section 1:10:iv). However, in any season with steady bright sunlight, the best method for heating water is using a solar cooking setup, which saves wood supplies and prevents waste of heat sources needlessly in hot weather (see section 3:2:v for cooking with sunlight).

Read the next section, Building A Fire...

Heating Water

2007-09-05T19:29:00.000-04:00

Content coming soon...

Building A Fire

2007-09-04T19:32:00.001-04:00

Though Toronto winters are mild and short in this millennium, heat inside homes is needed for the bouts of sub-zero weather that may be harmful to children and the elderly, especially in homes poorly insulated as they were built in the 1900’s. As well, heating will provide the ability to cook food, sterilize materials, can foods for preservation, and purify drinking water.

3:a:i) SAFETY & FIRE PREVENTION

When burning a fire in a woodstove, keep some basic principles in mind:

~ A stove must have a 3-foot barrier of space between it and any objects or materials that can heat up and potentially ignite (curtains, clothing, paintings, furniture, firewood, kindling, etc).

~ Burn fires hot and clean to prevent a buildup of soot in the stove pipe, allowing plenty of oxygen into the vent.

~ Do not burn pine wood or other woods from coniferous trees as these are sappy. Burn wood that has been air-dried for half a year or more, and that is not wet or damp from rain or snow.

~ Do not burn wood foraged from collapsed buildings or scrap yards as they may have been treated with chemicals. Only use these woods for burning outdoors and for purposes such as boiling water for washing or making soap.

~ Inspect and clean the stove pipe regularly, such as monthly. Brush the pipe with a metal brush on a long extension rod along the entire length of the pipe.

3:a:ii) HOW TO START A FIRE

STEP 1: Gather a few handfuls of tinder. Tinder is any kind of fine material that can easily catch fire, including paper, dry pine needles, fine dry grasses, birch bark, dried moss, mouse nests, cotton balls, and wood shavings.

STEP 2: Gather half a bucket full of kindling. Kindling must catch fire within a few seconds from the burning tinder, but only needs to burn for a few minutes. Use any dry twigs, including dry small pine branches with needles still attached.

STEP 3: Collect half a bucket full of small dry sticks, up to 2 inches thick.

STEP 4: Collect a bucket full of wood pieces 2 to 12 inches thick.

STEP 5: Build a small pile of tinder and light it with a match in several places. Layer a bit of kindling gentry on top.

STEP 6: As the kindling catches fire, pile on more kindling and gradually add larger pieces of wood. Forming a “teepee” or pyramid shape with the larger kindling and wood allows air to circulate and feed the fire.

3:a:iii) LIGHTING MATERIALS

Ideally, matches are the best resource. To waterproof matches, dip individually into melted wax and allow to dry. Store in a waterproof container.

If matches are unavailable, flints are the next best option. Flints can be readily found in various institutions, such as in high school and college chemistry labs.

If neither matches nor flints are available, you can always start a fire with a magnifying glass, concave mirror or even a pair of eyeglasses. A bright sun is essential. Hold the glass towards over the tinder, with the point of light (focal point) on the surface. Slowly the point will heat up, smolder, then turn into a small flame.

3:a:iv) PAPER BRICKS FOR FIREWOOD

With the massive shortage of hardwood in the city, and in efforts to conserve precious wood materials, paper bricks make an adequate substitute as fuel for fire in woodstoves.

STEP 1: Collect scrap newspapers and other combustible materials, including sawdust, twigs, cardboard, scrap paper, etc.

STEP 2: Tear or break into smaller pieces.

STEP 3: Soak in greywater or unpurified rainwater for at least 24 hours or up to 1 week.

STEP 4: Strain and place handfuls of the scrap mixture into a brick press*, piling full and high, and press firmly to remove all liquid. Collect extracted water as greywater.

STEP 5: Place bricks to dry in full sun for 1 month or longer, to ensure the bricks are thoroughly dried. For this reason it’s best to press paper bricks early in the summer and store in a dry place until needed in the fall and winter.

*Alternately, follow steps 1 to 3 and then simply use hands to press scrap mixture into balls. This is convenient in the event that a brick press is not accessible, and also reduces drying time, though the paper balls will burn much more quickly.

Read the next section, Stoves & Cookers...

Stoves & Cookers

2007-09-03T19:33:00.000-04:00

3:b:i) BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEAT & LIGHT CONSERVATION

~ Use outdoor kitchens or cooking set-ups in warmer weather, opting for solar cooking over wood-burning methods, and use indoor stoves for cooking to double as space heaters in cold weather.

~ Cook large quantities to feed many people to best make use of fuel and human energy.

~ When needing to heat or boil any water that is not for consumption (as in double-boiling to melt wax for candle making), use grey (recycled) water.

3:b:ii) BUILDING WOODSTOVES

A small wood stove can be made from a clean and dry oil drum – such as a 15-galon, closed-head heavy gauge grease drum.

STEP 1: Cut a small horizontal rectangular opening near the bottom of the drum for ash removal, and a square opening above that in the center of the drum for loading the wood.

STEP 2: Cut doors from sheet metal to overlap the two openings by 1/2” all around.

STEP 3: Bolt the doors to the drum, and make door catches for both doors from 4” corner braces. Cut and notch with a hacksaw and bend the braces to fit the curve of the drum. Bolt the door catches to the drum.

STEP 4: Cut draft regulators out of sheet metal: drill holes into them and through the doors in the pattern shown in the illustration, then bolt in place.

3:b:iii) BUILDING A HIGH-EFFICIENCY COOK STOVE

The principles behind a high-efficiency stove are to produce the least amount of smoke (air pollution), use the least amount of fuel (wood), and produce the most amount of heat. A “rocket elbow” stove uses materials easily found and is constructed to be a one-pot cooker. A fuel-saver, this stove uses twigs for burning, and incorporates a “skirt” around the pot which increases efficiency by minimizing heat loss.

3:b:iv) COOKING ON AN OPEN FIRE

The three-stone method is the most efficient if cooking outdoors and no high-efficiency stove is available.

STEP 1: Set up three large stones or cinder blocks on open ground in a triangle.

STEP 2: In the center of the triangle, arrange crumpled papers and kindling. Light the fire, then place a metal rack on top of the cinder blocks.

STEP 3: Begin to feed long sticks and twigs in through the gaps between the cinder blocks, along the ground. These will feed the fire by only burning at the ends.

STEP 4: Place your pot of food or water on the rack to heat. Adjust the amount of fire and heat by pulling sticks back or adding more sticks.

3:2: v) COOKING WITH SUNLIGHT

A solar cooker requires no fuel to cook food other than the sun from a bright sunny day. Cooking food this way takes longer than using fire, up to twice as long, but can cook meats, stews, bread and more. Below is a guide to making a simple solar cooker for one family, as well as a guide for building a spit-centered one for cooking large pieces of meat.

WINDSHIELD SHADE SOLAR FUNNEL COOKER

STEP 1: Using a flexible silver reflective windshield shade, fasten the bottom left and bottom right edges together using staples or sewing with a needle and thread, or taping together with silver duct tape. This will create a funnel shape.

STEP 2: Set down a bucket or plastic waste basket on a surface (ground, table) and place the joined edge of the funnel cooker down across the top. Place a grill or cake rack down in the centre of the funnel (this will press down on the flexible funnel).

STEP 3: Place your food ingredients in a black pot with a lid. Place this pot inside a clear plastic bag and tie closed. Rest the pot on the rack and angle the solar oven to directly face the sun for maximum reflection. If windy, set a stick across the wide part of the funnel to hold it open.

ALUMINUM SPIT SOLAR COOKER

This solar cooker is a more permanent version of the windshield design as it uses durable materials, and is designed to be more effective than the windshield cooker because of its smooth curving metal for a hotter focal point. However the main design for this is for skewering food like meats and vegetables. To cook pots of food or water, rig a metal grate to act as a shelf, making sure it places the pot in the focal point of the sun’s rays and can swivel to counteract the rotation of the reflector.

STEP 1: Using 1”-thick wood (such as pine or plywood), mark and cut out 2 half-circles measuring 13” wide and 4” high, with a 7 1/4” radius arc. Clamp the 2 pieces together and plane and sand the edges to shape (clamping will make both sides identical).

STEP 2: Bend a 16” x 18” rectangular square of sheet aluminum to fit the curve of the side pieces. Work carefully to avoid creasing or scratching the sheet. Make sure the shiny side of the aluminum is on the inner side of the curve.

STEP 3: Drill a hole in the centre of the wood pieces. Notch out 1/4” square divets in the centre of the straight edge of the semi-circles, the same width as the spit to be used. Unclamp.

STEP 4: Use two dozen 1/2” aluminum screws to tack the aluminum to the curved edge of the wood pieces. This completes the solar cooker section.

STEP 5: To make the base, take two 3”x6” planks of wood 1” thick, clamp together and drill a hole at the centre near the top. Unclamp.

STEP 6: Screw the two planks of wood upright to a baseboard large enough to fit these, making sure the distance between the boards is equal to the width of the solar cooker (18”).

STEP 7: Using two 2 1/2” bolts and wing (butterfly) nuts, fasten the solar cooker to the upright boards, using washers between the bolt head and washer and wood surfaces.

STEP 8: For a spit, use a long rotisserie skewer or a 1/4”-square steel rod filed to a point at one end. Clean and oil the spit, skewer a piece of meat, wrap tightly in aluminum foil (dull side out) and place the spit in the notched divets of the solar cooker. Adjust the cooker to point directly to the sun, maintaining this orientation by tilting the reflector and position of the cooker from time to time.

Read the next section, Light Sources...

Light Sources

2007-09-02T19:33:00.000-04:00

Burning candles and oil-burning lamps are the most easily refueled light sources. To maximize the lifespan of each, use sparingly and reserve tasks that require light for daytime when you would not require a light source other than the sun. Below are instructions for making candles and lanterns. Always reserve wax drippings for making new candles.

3:c:i) MAKING CANDLES

The best materials for making candles a combination of beeswax, tallow, alum and saltpeter. Beeswax is a hard substance and smells pleasant, but is available in smaller quantities than tallow, which is rendered animal fat, such as sheep fat. The alum and saltpeter are additives that harden the candles and make them burn cleaner. The ideal ratio of all four materials is, by weight: 20% beeswax, 40% tallow, 20% alum, 20% saltpeter. If your availability of beeswax and tallow varies, you can use any proportion of beeswax you like, but keep the proportion of tallow to alum to saltpeter at 50% to 25% to 25% respectively. Wicks should always be heavy cotton, prepared adequately and be proportionately sized for the diameter of the candle.

MAKING MOLDED CANDLES

Molded candles are efficient to make compared to dipped candles as the molded variety uses all the candles that is melted, therefore none is wasted, and it is also quick to make.

STEP 1: Collect, clean and dry any common containers such as milk cartons, jars and cans. Coat the interior of each mold with oil or grease to prevent sticking. (Waxed containers do not require coating.)

STEP 2: Tie one end of a wick to a metal washer and the other end to the centre of a stick. Place the washer end at the bottom of the container, and the stick across the top. Adjust the top tie so the wick is taut.

STEP 3: Place a pot half-filled with recycled water on a fire. Dent one side of an empty can to form a spout and place it inside the pot of water, creating a double-boiler. Add beeswax and tallow to the empty can. When materials are melted, add alum and saltpeter. Stir until all ingredients are melted and combined. If a thermometer is available, check temperature of melted substance and remove from heat when temperature reaches 190oF for metal molds, and 130oF for cardboard, plastic or glass molds.

STEP 4: Pour molten wax mixture into your prepared greased containers with wicks in place. Let cool for a few days, then remove candles from the molds. Cardboard molds can be peeled off. Allow candles to harden in a cold or cool place for 1 week before burning.

MAKING WICKS
Wicks must be made of a heavy cotton yarn or rag prepared the following way to prevent it from burning too quickly. Soak cotton for 12 hours in a mixture of 1 tablespoon of salt plus 2 tablespoons of boric acid in a cup of water. You can also use a solution of turpentine, lime water and vinegar. Dry the cotton and braid three strands together to form the wicks. If using rag strips, twist them up while braiding to keep them tight and compact. Use a thicker wick or multiple wicks for candles with large diameters.

3:c:ii) MAKING OIL LAMPS

Another renewable light source is an oil lamp. You can use any seed, nut or vegetable oil, best when combined with tallow. The simplest lamps can be made from a shallow container like a small bowl or gravy boat, with the wick sitting in the oil and the tip resting on the edge or spout. For a larger lamp, use one of the following options:

1) Use a clean jar with a lid. Punch a small hole in the lid, thread the wick through the hole (you can use a thread or thin wire to hook the wick, then thread the wire through the hole to pull the wick in through behind it). Fill the jar with oil, replace the lid and allow the wick to saturate with oil before lighting.

2) Use a glass bottle with a screw cap. Proceed as for the jar lamp.

Do not allow the oil to drop more than 6 inches from the flame or the wick will dry out at the tip and burn off.

Read the next section, Home Conversions...

Home Conversions

2007-09-01T19:34:00.004-04:00

The Toronto population has previously been housed in single-family homes, multi-unit homes, low-rise apartments, high-rise apartments, condominiums, lofts and above commercial units. Several of these are no longer feasible mainly because of their lack of access to water, toilet and food gardening. The following is a list of useable housing, adaptations needed, and semi- or un-useable housing.

4:a:i) USEABLE HOUSING WITH ADAPTATIONS

SINGLE-FAMILY HOMES
- Convert to support multiple families living in each home
- Install wood-burning stoves (see Chapter 3)
- Build outhouse(s) (see Chapter 5)
- Convert all useable soil to food garden (see Chapter 1)
- Install rainwater collection systems (see Chapter 2)

MULTI-UNIT HOMES
- Install wood-burning stoves
- Build outhouse(s)
- Convert all useable soil to food garden
- Install rainwater collection systems

LOW-RISE APARTMENTS (3 storey buildings)
- Install wood-burning stoves
- Build multiple outhouses
- Convert all useable soil to food garden
- Install rainwater collection systems
- Convert flat roof to container food garden

APARTMENTS ABOVE COMMERCIAL UNITS (3 storey buildings)
- Convert commercial units into multiple-family housing
- Install wood-burning stoves
- Build multiple outhouses
- Convert all useable soil to food garden
- Install rainwater collection systems
- Convert flat roof to container food garden

4:a:ii) SEMI-USEABLE HOUSING WITH ADAPTATIONS

CONDOMINIUMS, LOFTS & HIGH RISE APARTMENTS
- Close off all floors higher than 3rd floor
- Build multiple outhouses
- Convert all useable soil to food garden

4:a:iii) UNUSEABLE HOUSING

CONDOMINIUMS, LOFTS & HIGH RISE APARTMENTS
- Buildings of 4 floors or higher
- Buildings with no access to green space for food garden
- Buildings with roofs too hard to access (for gardening and installing rainwater collection system)

Read the next section, Adapting Commercial Buildings...

Adapting Commercial Buildings

2007-08-30T19:34:00.002-04:00

Most commercial and retail businesses in the city are now closed and defunct, as with the manufacturing sector. Some may continue to be of use, including textile shops, pharmacies, lumber yards, hardware stores, abattoirs and the like. Street-level shops on main streets will be out of business and better converted into family dwellings (see above).

Warehouses and some factory spaces that are close to farming and community food production can be converted into food storage spaces for grains, oils, meats, etc. Spaces selected must not have been using chemicals or toxic substances and should be generally empty, clean and neutral spaces. For example, a furniture warehouse is a preferable food storage facility over an auto repair garage.

As materials such as electronics, wiring, and building supplies get taken apart, they can also be stored by category in pre-existing electronics, hardware and building shops, to be used as a depot and source of scrap material when needed.

Read the next section, Building New Structures...

Building New Structures

2007-08-29T19:35:00.004-04:00

Whenever possible, existing building structures should be re-used and adapted instead of creating new structures. Housing, for example, is not a problem even for the hundreds of thousands displaced from high-rise apartments, because of the population still remaining in Toronto, single-family homes are converting to multiple-family homes, and commercial units are being converted into housing as well. If storage facilities are needed, the unused floors of high-rise commercial and apartment buildings can be used, which also allows for the freeing up of space in sheds and garages that should be converted into farming and livestock housing (see Chapter 1).

If new structures are needed, they are to be built out of salvaged materials from building sites or demolition sites. Otherwise, tire-and-earth construction is recommended (also excellent for building walls or levies) as a way to reuse waste material.

Read the next section, Other Various Buildings...

Other Various Buildings

2007-08-28T19:35:00.002-04:00

All useable buildings should install wood stoves, water collection systems and multiple outhouses.

SCHOOLS: to remain as education centers and community gathering places
OFFICE BUILDINGS: cannot be converted to housing, but adequate for storage if in close proximity to the general population
HOSPITALS: remain as-is; install wood stoves
HEALTH CLINICS: remain as-is; install wood stoves
LIBRARIES: remain as-is; filing to revert back to cards; install wood stoves
RESTAURANTS: can be used as food preservation facilities and/or soup kitchens

Read the next section, First Aid...

First Aid

2007-08-27T19:36:00.004-04:00

5:a:i) TREATING INJURIES AND ILLNESSES
Doctors and nurses should be stationed at close intervals throughout the city. Keep a list of all people in your neighbourhood who are trained at CPR, and organize training for more people to be versed in it.

IN CASE OF BLEEDING

- Try to control bleeding by applying direct pressure to the wound with a clean, bulky material. Elevate the wounded area to reduce blood pressure to the wound. If the dressing is blood soaked, do not change it but rather add new dressings on top. Tie dressings in place with strips of cloth or roll bandages.

- Arterial bleeding is marked by bright red blood spurting out. If the injury is to the scalp, neck, groin or shoulder, it can be difficult to control the bleeding and can lead to shock.

- With open wounds there is always a danger of infection. Wash out the would with soap and clean water, then dry quickly and apply clean bandages. If no clean water is available, urine is quite sterile and can be used for cleansing. Raw honey is also mildly antibacterial and can be used to prevent infection and speed healing.

- To create new sterile dressings ahead of time, cut cotton fabrics into strips and boil for at least 10 minutes. Allow to dry thoroughly, preferably in sunlight.

IN CASE OF CUTS OR PUNCTURES

- Cuts tend to bleed enough to clean the wound and are therefore not as prone to infections. To treat a minor cut, close with butterfly bandages or stitches.

- In stitching larger wounds, use only a sterilized needle and thread. Pull the sides of the wound together, and begin stitching at the center of the wound. Tie off each stitch individually.

- Puncture wounds might leave foreign material inside the flesh or can get infected. Therefore it’s best to get punctures treated by a medic.

IN CASE OF CHOKING

Only assist a choking victim if it is clear there is no air moving (no coughing or breathing sounds). Ask the person if they are choking, as they will still be able to hear you. In case of choking, apply the Heimlich maneuver immediately.

STEP 1: Stand or kneel behind the victim and wrap your arms around the upper belly.

STEP 2: Make a fist with one hand and grab the outside of the fist with the other hand. The thumb of your fist should be above the belly button but below the breastbone.

STEP 3: Point your elbows out, and vigorously thrust your fist upward into the victim’s belly. This is to force air through the windpipe to blow the obstruction out of it.

STEP 4: After four abdominal thrusts, try four sharp blows between the shoulder blades to dislodge the obstruction.

STEP 5: Repeat the series of 4 thrusts and 4 blows until the obstruction clears. Do not stop unless the victim passes out, in which case artificial respiration will be required.

IN CASE OF DISLOCATION OR FRACTURES

- Check the victim’s pulse and breathing. Keep the victim still.

- Do not move the broken limb or attempt to set the bone back in place, as this could cause further damage.

- Hold the affected body part in place with a splint or a sling, including at least the joint above and below the injury. Use a firm material in a splint such as a board or broomstick, and pad it with towels or rags for cushioning.

- Lay the victim flat and elevate the feet, unless a head, back or neck injury is suspected. Call for a medic.

IN CASE OF SPRAINED JOINTS

When a joint is sprained it will usually display soreness and welling, indicating the internal tissues have torn. Standard treatment is covered by the acronym RICE, which stands for Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation.

- Stay off the injured limb. Apply cold compresses for the first 24 to 48 hours. Do not apply ice directly to the skin, but insulate ice packs with a towel or folded cloth.

- After 2 days, massage the area and soak in hot water, or alternate between hot and cold soaks, to boost blood circulation. Elevate the limb and compress the injury with a snug bandage wrap to help control swelling.

- Immobilization is key to proper recovery.

IN CASE OF STRAINS

Pulled muscles can be treated by applying cold compresses immediately and elevate the limb to control swelling. If the pain begins to subside, apply hot compresses after 24 hours. If the muscle does not improve in two days, seek medical attention.

5:a:ii) TRANSPORTING AN INJURED PERSON

FIREMAN'S LIFT (one-person carry)
Useful for semi-conscious or unconscious patients. Use extreme caution when carrying a person. Avoid back injury to yourself by keeping your back straight and using your legs to lift.

STEP 1: With the patient lying on the floor, stand at his feet, stepping on his toes, and grasp his wrists.

STEP 2: Pull gently, and when he’s close to you, crouch down and pull him over one shoulder.

STEP 3: Pass an arm between the patient’s legs and grasp his arm nearest to your hands.

WRIST-CATCH SEAT (two-person carry)
Useful for conscious or semi-conscious patients.

STEP 1: Two people, each person grabs her left wrist with her right hand, then with her left hand grab the other person’s right wrist. This will form a square with the 4 forearms.

STEP 2: Both people bend down, keeping backs straight, and allow the patient to sit into the square of forearms. The patient puts her arms around each person’s neck for stability.

Read the next section, Natural Remedies...

Natural Remedies

2007-08-26T19:36:00.003-04:00

5:b) NATURAL REMEDIES

5:b:i) DISINFECTANTS AND ANTISEPTICS

Garlic: A powerful antibiotic and antibacterial bulb. Crush whole cloves and apply directly onto fungal infections and wounds to prevent infection or gangrene. Take internally as an antioxidant to prevent colds, flus, tuberculosis, cholera, typhus, dysentery, and intestinal parasites.

Honey: A natural antiseptic. Apply to wounds to disinfect and promote healing.

5:b:i) BRIEF GUIDE TO HERBAL REMEDIES

Lavender: To relieve headaches, smell a satchet of dried lavender flowers using slow, deep breathing.

Peppermint: Dilute peppermint oil with almond oil and rub on temples and forehead to relieve headaches.

Cloves: For toothaches, apply clove oil to a cotton ball and stuff between the affected gum and inside of your cheek. Also an antiseptic and anesthetic.

Aloe Vera: The juice from an aloe vera plant can be dabbed on burns, cuts, insect bites and abrasions. From a live aloe vera plant, cut off a leaf tip and squeeze the gel from the leaf directly onto the wound. Note that aloe vera is not antibiotic nor antiseptic.

Calendula: Make a salve from oil and crushed marigold leaves. Use on rashes, skin irritations, water or steam burns and cuts to promote healing.

White Willow Bark: Make into tea for a natural aspirin-like pain killer (will not cause abdominal bleeding or blood thinning like synthetic aspirin).

Vitamin C: A powerful antioxidant, immune system booster, natural detoxifier and necessary body nutrient for health and wound healing. Boil pine needles in clean water and drink as a tea, adding honey for flavour and energy.

For nausea or indigestion: Mint or fennel tea helps digestion, while clove tea helps nausea. Gingerroot tea helps both.

Making infusions: Pour 2 cups boiling water over 2 tablespoons of dried herbs. Steep for 10 minutes if the infusion is for internal use, 3 hours if for external use.

Making ointments: Mix one part powdered herbs with 4 parts heated lard, clarified butter or other fat, and stir thoroughly. Store in sterilized glass containers.

Read the next section, Making Soaps and Cleansers...

Making Soaps & Cleansers

2007-08-25T19:37:00.003-04:00

The basic ingredients needed for making soap are readily available – fat, water and lye – and the final product can be used for a variety of applications, including shampooing and laundering, and can be modified for dishwashing soap. Below are instructions for making a batch of all-purpose soap, and modifications for various uses.

5:c:i) SOURCES OF FAT

Fat can be either animal-sourced or vegetable-extracted. A combination of rendered beef fat (tallow) plus pig fat (lard) makes the best basic soap. Soybean, cottonseed, corn and sunflower oils produce low-foaming, medium-quality soaps. Reclaimed kitchen grease and frying pan drippings can yield good soaps if processed as outlined below. Soft and vegetable oil based soaps can be supplemented with beeswax to make them firmer and last longer.

Rendering animal fat

Rendering is the process of melting and purifying solid fats. Begin with double the weight of fat called for in your recipe. Cut the fat into small pieces and heat over a low flame. Do not let the fat burn or smoke. After rendering, strain the liquid into a clean container and keep cool. Discard the solid particles.

Reclaiming grease drippings

To re-use pan drippings from frying bacon or fatty meats they must be clarified. Place the fat, and equal amount of water, and 2 tablespoons of salt in a pan and bring to a boil. Remove from the fire, cool slightly, and add cold water (about 1/4 the amount of hot liquid). The mixture will separate into three layers: pure fat at the top, fat with granular impurities in the middle, and water at the bottom. Spoon off the pure fat and save it for soapmaking.

NB: To deodorize fat, cook sliced potatoes in the clarified fat.

5:c:ii) SOURCES OF LYE (Potash)

Lye can be produced by leaching it from wood ashes using water. A large wooden container, such as a barrel, works best. Drill a hole on the side as close to the bottom as possible and proceed as follows:

STEP 1: Place the barrel on cinder blocks or other supports. Set it at a slight angle to have the drilled hole at the lowest point so the lye will run out of it. Place a non-aluminum pot (crock or enamel work best) below the hole to catch the drips of lye water.

STEP 2: Line the bottom of the barrel with straw to strain the ashes, making sure the straw reaches several inches above the drain hole.

STEP 3: Pack the barrel with hardwood ashes (see note below). Then scoop out a crater at the surface large enough to hold 2 to 3 quarts (a liter?) of water.

STEP 4: Fill the crater with rainwater that’s been heated to boiling, and let the water seep down through the ashes. When the water has all seeped away, add more. It will take a while for the lye to begin to trickle outht rhough the drain hole, possibly several days, but do not try to speed up the process by adding water to the crater before all the water is seeped away.

STEP 5: To crate crystaline lye from the liquid potash collected, boil down the solution in a stainless steel or enamelware pot. At first, a dark residue called black salts will form. By maintaining heat, additional impurities can be driven off. You will eventually be left with the greyish-white potash to use in soap recipes. Store in a sealed container and beware its highly caustic characteristic, which can burn skin, eyes, nasal passages and throat if touched or inhaled.

NB: for the strongest lye use ashes from sugar maple, fruit woods, beech and ash trees.

5:c:iii) MAKING SOAP

Use only non-corrosive materials in the soap-making process, such as wood, glass, ceramic, stainless steel or ceramic. Do not use plastic, aluminum or tin. The best water to use is collected rainwater as it is softer than ground water. Below is the recipe for basic soap.

MATERIALS: 6 pounds beef fat (or vegetable oils, or lard, or combinations), 2 1/2 pints water, 13 ounces lye crystals, 1/4 pound beeswax (optional, for all vegetable oils)

STEP 1: Pour the cold water into an enamel pot, then slowly add the lye while stirring steadily with a wooden spoon. The chemical reaction this will create will generate high temperatures. To cool the lye solution, place the enamel pot in another pot containing cold water. Once the solution has cooled, pour into a glass container.

STEP 2: Place the beef fat into a pot and heat to 95oF in a double-boiler. Place the glass container with the lye solution in a separate pot with water and heat to 98oF.

STEP 3: Stir the fat with a wooden spoon, then slowly pour in the lye solution in a steady stream. Stir continuously in a figure-8 motion.

STEP 4: The mixture will turn opaque and brownish, then lighten. Soap is ready when you pull out the spoon and the drippings momentarily remain on the surface of the mixture.

STEP 5: Add colour or scents at this point, stir well, then pour into molds.

STEP 6: Cover molds with cardboard, styrofoam and/or blankets to help encourage the soap to cook in its chemical reaction. After 24 hours, the soap can be cut and removed from the molds, and left uncovered in open air for one month.

5:c:iv) VARIETIES OF SOAPS FOR DIFFERENT USES

DISHWASHING: Slice off shavings of hard soap and boil them in water until dissolved, using about 1 pound of shavings per galon of water. This will produced jellied soap. Store in small tubs to dip rags into while washing cookware.

LAUNDRY: Finely grate hard soap and add a few tablespoons of borax. Store in containers and scoop into a non-reactive laundry tub (use plastic or enamel) with collected rainwater for washing clothing. For efficiency, use a large plastic bin with a lid for doing laundry, cutting a hole in the lid to pull a toilet plunger through which acts as an agitator while lid is closed.

SHAMPOO: Use regular soap for hair. For dry hair, beat an egg until frothy and massage well into wet scalp. Leave on for a few minutes. Rinse with cold water.

CONDITIONER: Make an infusion using rosemary and rainwater with enough water to rinse hair thoroughly. Add 2 tablespoons vinegar if following the fresh egg shampoo, to cut the film that gets left behind.

5:c:v) DENTAL HYGIENE

To prevent toothache, tooth decay, gingivitis and cavities, brush every day upon rising in the morning, after each meal, and before going to bed. Even using plain water on a toothbrush, plus flossing at the end of the day, is terrifically helpful in preventing dental problems. Below are some concotions for simple toothpastes.

TOOTHPASTE 1: Make a thick paste of salt or sodium bicarbonate and water.

TOOTHPASTE 2: Combine honey and finely ground charcoal.

TOOTHPASTE 3: Combine 3 parts sodium bicarbonate and 1 part salt. For every 1/4 cup salt and soda mixture, add 3 teaspoons of glycerine and enough water to make a soft paste.

Add peppermint or pine oil to any of these mixtures for a more pleasant taste.

Read the next section, Childbirth & Feminine Health...

Childbirth & Feminine Health

2007-08-24T19:37:00.003-04:00

5:d:i) GUIDELINES FOR EMERGENCY CHILDBIRTH

Birthing clinics should be set up throughout the city and expecting mothers should coordinate ahead of time for when labour begins. Otherwise medical units can be used, and in case of emergency childbirth follow the guidelines below. Whenever possible, enlist the assistance of qualified medical personnel, nurses and midwives and have birthing supplies ready.

Signs of impending delivery

• Regular contractions that are two minutes apart or less between the start of each contraction.

• The sensation of having a strong urge for a bowel movement.

• Rupture of the amniotic sac (the water breaks), possibly while attempting to eliminate.

During labour

The first stage lasts from the beginning of strong contractions until the baby has dropped into the birth canal (launch position). The mother should drink lots of fluids and try to keep the bowels evacuated. An enema may be helpful. If she has a bowel movement the mother should be wiped from front to back and the bed coverings should be changed. The mother should wash her buttocks and genital area with soap and warm water. Birthing supplies should be readied. During this stage the mother should not push and her belly should not be massaged. Deep, slow breathing can help ease the pain. A warm wet face towel held against her genitals can help open and loosen her muscles. Walking helps to speed the delivery and labour. This stage typically lasts 10 to 20 hours, but could be as short as 2 hours and as long as 2 days.

The second stage starts when the baby has dropped into the birth canal and finishes when the baby is born. Keep everything as sterile as possible during this stage, washing hands frequently or using latex gloves if available. With each contraction, the mother should push hard until the baby’s head shows about 3 inches across. At this point, the mother should slow down, take short fast breaths and not push too hard, in order to avoid vaginal tearing. Hands or fingers should never be inserted into the birth canal or it could lead to severe infection. This second stage is usually finished in a couple of hours and is easier than the first stage.

The third stage lasts from the birth until the placenta has been expelled and bleeding has stopped. This usually happens between five minutes and one hour after the birth. If there is severe bleeding or the placenta does not come out, seek medical attention immediately.

Birthing supplies

• Flashlight
• Plastic sheet, tarp or large garbage bags to place under the mother on the bed
• Clean sheets or towels to place under the mother and on top of the plastic sheet. Change as soon as it gets soiled. Have at least 3 extra clean dry towels on hand.
• Menstrual pads
• Rubber suction bulb for suctioning the newborn’s mouth and nostrils
• Sterile gloves, gauze dressings and razor blade or scissors
• Two pieces of sterile string (you can boil a few shoelaces for 10 minutes) for tying the umbilical chord
• Receiving blankets or towels and diapers for the newborn
• A container for the placenta

5:d:ii) FEMININE HYGIENE & HEALTH

Making menstrual pads

Make menstrual pads by layering flannel strips on top of terry cloth strips as needed. To hold in place, cut flannel strips to include wings to wrap around underwear and sew on snaps or buttons to secure wings closed. Alternately, sew with a fold-over at either end and string elastic or a thin sash through fold-over to belt around the waist or hips.

[ diagram to come ]

To clean, soak cloth pads in cold water overnight, then launder. It’s best to disinfect cloth pads by boiling in water for at least 10 minutes to avoid any residue from attracting bacteria. Use the soaking water and (cooled) boiling water to nourish your herb or vegetable garden.

Treating yeast infections

Wash the genitals and anus every time after any elimination with a dilution of apple cider vinegar in plenty of clean water, pouring it down from the pubic area and washing from the back.

Do not wear underwear, or wear loose cotton underwear.

Eliminate sugars, breads, alcohol and vinegar from your diet and consume cranberry juice or blackberry juice, and plenty of garlic. Increase your intake of vitamin C (see 5:2:iii), and consume 1 cup of fresh plain yogurt daily until infection clears.

Use a garlic clove as a suppository and leave in overnight. Do not douche.

Treating vaginitis

Follow all guidelines for treating yeast infections above, and:

Use calendula salve to soothe the itching and irritation caused by vaginitis.

Have a hot-cold contrast sitz bath: sit in a hot shallow bath for 3 minutes, then stand up and hold a cold wet towel on your genitals for up to 1 minute. Repeat this cycle 5 times.

Reducing Premenstrual Syndrome

Diet: eliminate animal fat and dairy from your diet, and consume oils or butters from flaxseed, walnut and pumpkin. Drink tea from evening primrose or red raspberry leaves. If available consume plenty of asparagus.

Cramps: Take 1 tablespoon aloe vera gel with a pinch of black pepper after every meal one week before, and the week during, menstruation.

Read the next section, The Sick, The Elderly, & Human Burial...

The Sick, The Elderly, & Human Burial

2007-08-23T19:38:00.002-04:00

5:e:i) In Case of Illness

Twenty-four hour health stations are now set up in neighbourhoods throughout the city. Before waiting to become sick to see a medical professional, households should locate and register at the nearest clinic to give personal information and medical history so records are onhand and up to date in the case of accident, injury, illness or disease. Family first aid kits are available at these health stations, along with updated postings of current outbreaks of infections, quarantines and other community health news.

5:e:ii) Chronic Illness, Paleative Care, and Elderly Care

People suffering from chronic illness requiring special medications are at the disadvantage of a chronic shortage of prescription medicine. It is strongly encouraged to seek alternative medical advice, such as from naturopaths, acupuncturists and herbalists, to help minimize need for drugs while aiding in disease management or even help healing. For chronic illness it is also important to inform family, friends and neighbours about possible health crises (ie. Insulin shock in a diabetic) so quick informed actions can be taken.

The elderly and fatally ill (without infectious diseases) are best taken care of in the homes of their families or caregivers. Their main needs by the caregivers are comfort, company and conversation, along with physical support like feeding, grooming, bathing, and keeping track of any necessary medicines. As immunity is compromised in the patients, it is important to keep them as healthy as possible, away from sources of viruses, well fed, and engaged in light activity like walking, if possible. A relationship with a housecalling nurse or alternative health practitioner is recommended, with regular visits.

5:e:iii) Infectious Outbreaks & Quarantines

Many illnesses and diseases exist that can only be diagnosed and treated by a nurse, doctor, or natural health practitioner. Below are a few of the most common health issues.

BOTULISM

Botulism is a rare muscle-paralyzing disease caused by a toxin made by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum. The three types of naturally occurring botulism are foodborne botulism (occurs when eating contaminated canned food), infant botulism (caused when infants consume the spores of the bacteria) and wound botulism (occurs when wounds are infected with the botulism toxin).

People can get botulism by eating contaminated food - especially contaminated home-canned food -- that has not been properly cooked or reheated. Although not contagious, all forms of botulism can be fatal and are considered a public health emergency because many people can be poisoned by eating contaminated food.

Classic symptoms include: double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness. Infants with botulism may seem lethargic, constipated, have a weak cry and poor muscle tone, and feed poorly.

Botulism must be treated as quickly as with an antitoxin. This can prevent the symptoms from becoming worse, but full recovery takes several weeks.

PLAGUE

Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. The three forms of plague are bubonic plague (from rodent flea bites, causing painful swollen lymph node infections), pneumonic plague (fatal lung infection) and septicemic plague (fatal blood infection).

Initial symptoms are flu-like complaints: fever, chills, muscle pain, weakness and headache, possibly accompanied by a swollen and very tender lymph gland, accompanied by pain.

Pneumonic plague symptoms: rapidly developing pneumonia with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough and sometimes bloody or watery sputum. The pneumonia may cause respiratory failure and shock. Fatal if left untreated.

Treatment includes antibiotics for plague, but people with pneumonic plague need to be placed in medical isolation as it is highly contagious.

SMALLPOX

Smallpox is a disease caused by Variola virus. The two forms of smallpox are Variola major (most common form) and Variola minor (less than 1% mortality rate).

Generally smallpox is spread by an ill person to others through infectious droplets from coughing or sneezing, or through contaminated clothing or bed linen.

Initial symptoms include fever, malaise, aching pain, backache and headache. A characteristic rash then appears two to three days later, mainly inside the mouth and on the face and forearms, spreading to the trunk and legs. A person is most contagious during the first week of illness. The rash may appear on all parts of the body, including the palms and soles, and eventually evolves into scabs. In contrast, chickenpox does not affect the palms and soles, tends to be concentrated on the abdomen, and may have eruptions that develop at different rate.

Although there is no treatment for smallpox, infected people can benefit from medicine for fever and antibiotics for any secondary bacterial infection that can occur.

5:e:iv) BURYING THE DEAD

Traditional methods of disposing of human corpses, namely burial and cremation, are no longer viable options for this city of limited land space and even more limited energy sources. Burials also require use of wood for building caskets which ultimately get buried and decompose, and cremation (or even ceremonial burning, Viking-style), require enormous amounts of energy through firewood. Nonetheless, a burial of sorts is the most sustainable method of disposing of bodies, both human and animal.

Humans, like all natural matter, decompose, and hence are compostable. Unlike in traditional casket burials, a corpse set for direct burial into the earth wrapped only in cloth or canvas, will decompose within a matter of years, allowing cemetery grounds to be reused in rotation. Burying 2 to 4 feet deep will allow for an aerobic breakdown and also feed the roots of plants at the surface as the bodies (organic matter) become soil.

Read the next section, Sewage...

Sewage

2007-08-22T19:38:00.003-04:00

The city’s sewage system is based on running water that flushes waste to the sewage treatment plants, which then process the sludge separating out the water and dumping that into the lake, and incinerating the remaining solid waste. This system will fail or has now failed due to a lack of electricity which renders both water pumping systems as well as the treatment plants out of service. Without running water, the city’s residential toilets are not to be used. For safety, it is best to remove all toilets from washrooms and seal up the holes in the floors. Save the toilet seats for use in constructing outdoor privies (outhouses) and to cap buckets for indoor composting toilets. The porcelain toilets can be crushed or broken into pieces to be used as aggregate in clay or cement for construction, such as in floors and countertops.

5:f:i) OUTHOUSES

A pit privy, or outhouse, is a little shack with enough room for one or two people to use the facilities at a time, in the outdoors, where no plumbing, running water or electricity is needed. All that is required is a shovel to dig a pit 5 feet deep, some reclaimed wood slats for the walls, a roof, and a hammer and nails to assemble the structure. Below is a guide for building a privy for one. Dig the site as far from water and vegetable gardens as possible, preferably 50 to 100 feet away.

Using a concrete slab floor stops rodents and diverts rain from the pit. If concrete is not available, use a reclaimed grate at least 7x7’ and place boards overtop to create a solid floor (make sure to cut a hole for the seat). Rings cast in the slab permit the top structure to be moved to a new site when the pit is full. Add windows and/or translucent roofing for natural light.

Maintenance

Traditionally lye or powdered lime has been used to kill bacteria in the pit of a privy. This can indeed be done, but instead it is preferable to add dirt, ashes and dry clippings (leaves, twigs, etc) on a regular basis to help convert the refuse into compost. This compost wouldn’t be used but helps re-incorporate human waste into the earth system.

When a pit is full, it is time to move the shed structure. Dig a new pit several feet away from the first one haul the structure overtop of it, using the embedded hooks to attach chains to pull it. Use the dirt from the new hole to fill and cover the old hole. Always dig the privy pits as far from food plants as possible.

The primary problems of outdoor pit latrines are flies/mosquitos, odors, and the spread of disease. Manage these by covering the pit with a concrete slab or plywood, fitting tightly to the pit walls so that there are no gaps or holes between the latrine cover and the edges of the pit. Install a capped and screened vent pipe that rises at least 18 inches above the roof of the latrine, and use a tight fitting seat cover inside the latrine. Paint the vent pipe black and place on the sunny side of the latrine. This heats the air inside the pipe, causing it to rise and draw air out of the pit, minimizing odor.

Chamber pots

For convenience, homes can keep pots or buckets indoors for cold weather, nighttime, or illness, that gets emptied into the outhouse pit in the morning. To reduce the spread of germs, these should only be used for urine and emptied promptly.

Composting toilets

Choosing a secluded room in a house or building, put a toilet seat on a rigid plastic bucket. In the bottom of the bucket, place some sawdust (sawdust should be loose and coarse, not a fine powder), peat moss, or dried leaves mixed with some dirt. After each use, add more of this material so the waste is covered. When the bucket is full, dispose of in a compost pile and allow 2 years to mature. Alternately, dig a hole in the ground about six feet deep and 2 or 3 feet across. Empty into the hole, and cover completely with dirt. Cover the hole with a board weighted down with bricks or rocks. When this has been filled to within 2 feet of the surface, fill it the rest of the way with dirt. Disposal holes must be at least 8 yards away from a source of water such as a well, pond, or stream.

If toilet paper is not available, many common papers can substitute, such as newspaper or phone book paper. Even green leaves (as opposed to dry) can suffice. Some cultures use water for cleansing.

Read the next section, Chapter 6: Farming By-products...

Farming Byproducts

2007-08-21T19:39:00.001-04:00

By transforming the city into self-sufficient and sustainable communities, the need for a constant flow of new materials will be almost nil. Most supplies needed for agriculture, transportation, heating, et cetera, will be generated as byproducts of the various processes. Other materials of finite or non-renewable sources, including glass, metal, wire, wire mesh, chicken wire, and lumber, need to be salvaged. These can be found in abandoned buildings and scrapyards, or removed from defunct objects. Some building supply businesses and hardware shops may have access to a limited supply. It is adviseable to organize storage areas to house materials in a categorized fashion (see section 4:b Adapting commercial buildings).

6:1) FARMING BY-PRODUCTS

Growing produce and raising livestock will provide not only the main source of food for all citizens, but many of their byproducts and waste are invaluable materials for a wide variety of purpose. As well, it is important to try to achieve 100% use of all materials to make our habitation of the land as sustainable, efficient, and waste-free as possible.

6:1:i) KITCHEN WASTE
(see also Compost in section 1:5)

VEGETABLE CLIPPINGS
Feed vegetable tops (such as carrot greens) to rabbits. Although goats will eat anything, make sure to feed them only fresh vegetable clippings and especially legumes. Pigs however will do fine consuming leftover produce of all kinds, including table scraps of cooked vegetarian food. When feeding leftovers to pigs, they must be processed first by picking through the food to remove inedible items and meat or poultry. Cook the scraps for 30 minutes to destroy any bacteria.

MEAT AND POULTRY SCRAPS
Boil bones to make nutritious soups and broths. Use large and fine bones to craft tools and implements. Dry and crush egg shells and small bones to add to compost as a nourishing additive.

Cats and dogs are the perfect recipients for scraps of raw animal flesh that may not be appealing to humans. Raw meat is the healthiest food for cats and dogs, supplemented with raw berries, vegetables, grasses, rodents, etc. Cooked “people food” is not advised for feeding animals, though occasionally leftovers of meat and vegetables can be fed to dogs (and fish to cats) but not as a main staple.

OIL PRESSING BYPRODUCT: SEED CAKE
Seed cake is a valuable by-product of pressing. Sesame seed cake is valuable as a human food. Sunflower seed cake is not suitable for people, but it makes a good addition to chicken, pig, or cattle feed. Since sunflower seed cake has all the seed hulls in it, it is very fibrous. The press does not get all the oil out of the cake; it is oilier than most feed additives. It is quite high in crude protein, but contains very few carbohydrates. It should be used as a feed additive, not a feed by itself.

Proper storage of both seed and seed cake is extremely important. Seed must be protected from moisture, rodents, and insects. Very moist seed will rot. Even if your seed is not moist enough to rot, it may be moist enough to grow mold. This is a problem for two reasons. First, moldy seed cake does not taste good to animals. They may not be willing to eat moldy feed. Worse, some kinds of mold make mycotoxins such as aflatoxin. These poisons can make people and animals sick. Some of the poisons from moldy seed will end up in the oil, but most remain in the seed cake. They can also get into the meat, eggs, and especially the milk of the animals that eat the cake.

Mold spores are present in all crops. Molds grow best in warm, humid weather. To prevent the growth of mold, dry the seeds shortly after harvest. Even dry seed can quickly get damp by being in contact with damp earth. Once the seed is dried and bagged, it must be stored carefully to keep it from taking up moisture. (The moisture content of the seed should be no higher than 10%. To test for moisture, weigh a sample of seed or cake, and then heat the sample in a medium-hot oven for one hour. Reweigh the sample. The weight lost in the oven is equal to the moisture content of the original sample, and the percentage can be calculated: divide the weight lost by the original weight and multiply by 100.)

6:1:ii) LIVESTOCK BYPRODUCTS

Sometimes livestock or poultry die of natural causes, and in the cases where illness or disease are not a factor, they may be fed raw to cats and dogs. Aside from the meat, there are many uses for the rest of the animals, either during their life or after their death:

HIDES
The hides of many animals can be used to make leather, or used as skins. Use cow and lamb hide to make leather, and sheep, goat, raccoon, rabbit, cat and horse hide to make skins and furs, suitable for clothing, blankets and furniture.

HAIR AND FEATHERS
Animal hair is also a valuable byproduct. Horsehair from the tail and mane can be used for spinning ropes, horse reins and fishing lines, for making sieves, and weaving rugs. It is also commonly used for making brushes and for stuffing furniture and mattresses. For shearing sheep for wool, see section 1:7:v. Use chicken and duck feathers for stuffing blankets, clothing and mattresses.

MANURE
Manure is a constant byproduct of all livestock. For a complete list of types of manure and their qualities to use as fertilizer in farming, see section 1:3:ii.

Read the next section, Fabrics...

Fabrics

2007-08-20T19:39:00.001-04:00

Agricultural efforts are best spent on food production, so growing fiber plants like hemp and cotton may not be feasable for some time. Luckily, reusing existing textiles is a more efficient use of time and resources. Below is a list of suggested uses of various materials that can be gathered from worn items that can no longer serve their original purpose. Reusing fabrics is advised instead of composting, as composting fabrics releases methane gas.

6:2:i) ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS

Our supply of materials available now, that are made of artificial materials, are finite. The most useful of what we can gather is fleece, a petroleum byproduct. Fleece is a strong and long-lasting fabric that is excellent for warmth. Scraps from unuseable clothing and blankets can be used to make new blankets and wraps for infants, who are in most need of protection from the elements. These materials are not biodegradable and should therefore be used and reused many times over.

6:2:ii) COTTON

Cotton fabrics have the ability to be reincarnated for many purposes as they get used more and more in their lifespan, eventually to be shredded into compost. Cotton clothing, bedding, curtains, etc, that are no longer useable, should be cut and sewn into smaller clothing for children, and also made into cloths for washing, diapers, menstrual pads, and medical bandages.

Read the next section, Glass, Plastic & Rubber...

Glass, Plastic & Rubber

2007-08-19T19:41:00.001-04:00

6:3: i) GLASS
(for building seedlings nurseries, year-round greenhouses; reuse old windows for barns and outhouses or for repairs) (glass bottles as bricks)

Our supply of glass is finite now, as the energy required to make new glass is beyond reach at this point. Old windows salvaged from office towers, apartments and other abandoned buildings can be used to build mini-greenhouses and cold frames, and full-scale year-round greenhouses to extend our growing season (see section 1:4:ii for more). Windows and scrap glass can be used to repair broken windows or to double-insulate homes and greenhouses.

Unbroken glass bottles make excellent bricks with a high insulation index when plugged to trap air inside. Use cement (if available), a mud/straw mixture, or clay to mortar the bottles side-by-side and row-on-row.

6:3:ii) PLASTIC SHEETING

Another valuable petroleum byproduct is plastic sheeting. In large pieces it can be used as a single or reinforcing layer in building greenhouses (large or mini) or cold frames. As well it can be covered over crops, elevated off the plants, to extend the growing season by retaining heat and moisture and allowing sunlight through. To help insulate homes in winter it can be covered tightly over windows. Repair tears with scrap pieces of plastic sheeting.

6:3:iii) RUBBER
(old tires for construction, flooring)

Tires are an invaluable resource as these are also a finite material made from petroleum. Save to replace damaged tires on bicycle and cart wheels. With the larger tires from large cars, trucks and buses, which are in abundant supply and no longer needed, these can be used as the basis of rammed-earth buildings and walls where new structures are required. Irreparably damaged tires can be cut into smaller pieces and used as an aggregate to flooring materials such as clay or cement.

6:3:iv) HOUSEHOLD ITEMS

REFRIGERATORS
Remove all sections and strip off interior walls, shelves and insulation to leave only the metal shell plus doors. Attatch a simple chimney vent and use as a smokehouse for curing meats (see section 1:10:iv).

BATH TUBS
Remove from the defunct washroom and place outdoors on pavement to use as a planter for growing vegetables. Ideal for grains.

BOILERS/WATER HEATERS
Cut a hole at the top and place under a gutter spout to use as a rain collection barrel. Use as a woodstove by cutting a front-loading door and attaching a chimney (see instructions for building a woodstove out of an oildrum in section 3:2:ii).

KITCHEN SINK
May still be used for washing and food preparation. Remove drain and place a greywater collection bucket below the sink, with a cloth or mesh cover for straining out dirt and solids.

ELECTRONICS
Disassemble all electronics and gather all parts for potential use in energy projects. Organize several depots throughout the city for electonics, motors, parts and scraps.

Read the next section, Natural Materials...

Natural Materials

2007-08-18T19:41:00.001-04:00

There are a variety of applications for other natural materials that may seem like useless waste, as listed below.

6:4:i) WOOD ASH
(farming, outhouse, snowy walkways, soap-making lye)

The ash remaining after burning wood is a rich resource with two main uses. One is to work it back into agricultural land to enrich the soil for growing crops. This is an age-old practice and has an alkaline effect on the soil. Another important use of wood ash is to extract lye to make soap. For more on this see section 5:3:ii.

Sifted wood ash is also a great food preserver for perishables like cheese. Place cheese in a tin container filled with ash and store in a cool, dry place for a year or more.

As well, ash is useful in neutralizing odours from an outhouse by being scattered into the pit on a regular basis. Also scatter ash over ice and hardened snow over walkways to make less slippery.

6:4:ii) LEAVES & PINE NEEDLES

Collect dry leaves fallen from trees and bushes to add to compost. Fresh fallen leaves can be fed to farm animals, especially rabbits and goats. Use leaves as mulch over farm soil after transplanting seedlings in the spring, and in the fall to enrich the soil over the wintertime. Pine needles can also be used for compost and mulch. Fresh green pine needles should be made into a tea and consumed regularly by all citizens as it is a high source of Vitamin C.

6:4:iii) WOOD FOR FIRE & CONSTRUCTION

Wood is a precious resource and should be used for fire and construction only when salvaged wood or fallen trees are not available. As often as possible, salvaged wood, fallen branches, and gathered twigs should be used for kindling and firewood. When using salvaged wood from buildings and structures, use treated wood for heat only, in ventilated areas, and never for smoking meats. Pine wood is not recommended for heating in woodstoves as the gum residues can stick to the inside of stove pipes and could eventually spark a dangerous house fire. See section 3:1 for more on fire for heating and cooking.

6:4:iv) PAPER BRICKS: AN ALTERNATIVE TO WOOD FIRE LOGS

An alternative to wood as fuel for fire, newspaper bricks can be made and stored to use like logs. Gather all available newsprint, such as from old newspaper buildings, print shops, etc, as well as old cardboard and paperback books. Follow the instructions below to make your bricks, and when dry use in place of wood logs in a fire. A brick press is required.

[ illustration to come ]

1) Tear up materials into small pieces.
2) Place in a large barrel or container and cover with water. Stirring occasionally, let sit for 4 to 6 days until the paper comes apart in soft pieces.
3) When the paper mixture is soft and mushy, scoop mixture into a brick mould and press to squeeze out all excess water.
4) Turn out brick and let dry in open air, protected from rain and moisture, for a few weeks or up to two months. The brick is fully dry when it feels like a piece of wood.
5) Store in a dry place and use in a wood stove. Four bricks should burn for about an hour.

This is a versatile process which readily accepts combinations of paper materials with sawdust, wood chips, and dried grass clippings. Paper bricks are not suitable for construction as moisture causes paper to expand.

Read the next section, Trailers & Sleds...

Trailers & Sleds

2007-08-17T19:41:00.001-04:00

Without cars, buses, subways and streetcars, all transportation will be up to individuals as human-powered or animal-pulled modes of transport. Able people with only themselves or with light cargo to carry, walking and cycling are obvious choices. However, once there is more weight involved, such as in carrying heavy cargo, or one or more passengers, and in snowy conditions, other options are needed. These include building trailers and rickshaws, using horses and dogs, plus skis and snowshoes for treading snow in greater distances.

7:1) TRAILERS & SLEDS

Using the skills of mechanics, carpenters and engineers, a wide variety of trailers and sleds can be built using spare parts and scrap materials. Below are some ideas for modifying bicycles and building trailers and sleds for various purposes, which can be adapted with wheels or with skis for use either on the road or on snow.

[ illustrations to come ]
Dog sled; rickshaw; bicycle trailer (2 designs); bamboo trailer (water carrier & basic structure); horse-pulled large cargo trailer on wheels; dog-pulled small cargo trailer

7:1:i) USES FOR TRAILERS & SLEDS

HUMAN-POWERED
- wheeled trailers and ski sleds: transport water, food, materials, supplies, one to two children, one adult (ie. injured, deceased)

DOG-PULLED
- wheeled trailers and ski sleds: transport small cargo including water, food, materials and supplies
- multiple-dog pulls: one two adults (ie. injured, deceased), larger cargo

HORSE-PULLED
- multi-passenger carriers (ski sled or wheeled trailer), large water containers, lumber, building supplies and large cargo of materials and supplies

Read the next section, Winter Travel...

Winter Travel

2007-08-16T19:42:00.001-04:00

Traveling throughout the city in winter is not unlike the rest of the year except for having to dress very warmly, in breatheable fabrics for the traveller and extra blankets for passengers. Walking and bicycling are possible all year round. In cases of heavy snowfall, skis and snowshoes are recommended. For transporting cargo or passengers, sleds or trailers must be built to be attachable to a bicycle or traveller’s waist by harness.

7:2:i) MAKING SNOWSHOES

Some found materials can make excellent snow walking aids, including squash rackets and PVC piping. If using squash rackets, remove strings and re-thread using thicker string like plastic rope (that won’t stretch) or strips of hide. Alternately, line the existing strings with a sheet of plastic (like from tarp, tents or raincoats) cut to shape, and this will be the underside of the snowshoe. Attach a toe hold and it’s ready. If using PVC piping, carefully heat the pipe to bend to the shape below, and stitch a liner of plastic (tarp, etc) plus a toe hold.

Read the next section, On Maintenance & Repair...

On Maintenance & Repair

2007-08-15T07:43:00.002-04:00

Building and maintaining bicycles, carriers and sleds will be an ongoing need. Communities should gather mechanics, engineers, carpenters and bicycle repair experts to aid in this task. Horses must be taken care of and fed, cleaned and housed properly in converted garage sheds, as must dogs groomed for the task of pulling cargo.

[ some bicycle maintenance & repair instructions to come ]

Read the next section, Crosstown Communication...

Cross-town Communication

2007-08-14T19:47:00.001-04:00

No longer are telephones, satellites and power stations functioning for communication across or outside the city. Wind-up radios and shortwave radios are the best source of information to gather from stations powered independently, and some solar laptops and computer can access internet with select servers also independently powered. For the purposes of in-town non-computerized communication, the guidelines below will aid in establishing a reliable system.

8:a:i) MESSENGERING

In the past few years, each neighbourhood in Toronto has established a communication center, consisting of a large notice board sheltered from wind and the elements, and functioning as a station for one or more messengers. They are housed in storefronts, community centers, schools, libraries and various families’ homes. Messages are sent from the community center of one neighbourhood to that of another, but to individual addresses in case of emergency. These centers act as post office boxes and can also set up a system of mailboxes for families or households.

Ideally there should be 3 messengers per center to handle various distances: a foot messenger to walk messages within 2 kilometers; a running or wheeled messenger (inline skates, skateboard, etc) for up to 5 kilometers and for short emergency runs; and a cycling messenger for greater distances and longer emergency runs. If weather or snow impede cycling, foot messengers can take their task to a stable where a rider should be trained as horse messenger for this purpose.

Depending on the urgency of messages relayed, and how busy the station is, it might be preferable to relay long-distance messages using several neighbourhoods between the points of the deliverer and receiver, to share the task of delivering the messages.

8:a:ii) HOMING PIGEONS

The art of raising and training homing pigeons to carry messages has been unused for nearly half a century, though now is a good time to try to revive it. Homing pigeons (not carrier pigeons, which can’t fly well), are a particular breed from the rock dove family that looks a lot like the kind found in Toronto. They are a slate blue colour, their necks having iridescent shades of yellow, purple and green. Most homing pigeons have a dark gray blue line across their tails, and two dark bars over their wings. They also have grayish pink bills. They can also be recognized for the way they bob their heads when they walk. This variety of bird has been know to fly almost 3000 kilometers at a rate of 50 kph or more.

To raise homing pigeons, a "loft" or house must be built for them. It should have an indoor area as well as an outdoor area. The outdoor area must be caged in with wire so the pigeons can't fly away, and at least partially covered for shade and protection from the elements. A wired enclosure also protects the pigeons from predators such as raccoons, opossums, hawks and cats. Lofts can range in size depending on how many pigeons need accommodating. Pigeons are birds that "roost" or sleep on something high off the ground so roosts need to be provided inside the loft. Water must be provided at all times for drinking and bathing. Small tubs work well for bathing pans and self waterers work great for the pigeons to drink from. This will keep them cool during warm weather. Pigeons should be fed 2 times daily a mixture of grains and grubs.

The basis of training homing pigeons is that they have the innate ability to return to their home nest or mate. Training must begin at an early age, usually 2 months. They are released a short distance from the loft to begin with, then as the pigeon learns to return home, it is released at ever increasing distances.

Read the next section, Signage...

Signage

2007-08-13T19:48:00.002-04:00

Various neighbourhood posts should have clear signage for establishing their purposes, to messengers, newcomers, councillors and residents.

8:b:i) USEFUL RESIDENTIAL AND COMMUNITY SIGNS

The following establishments and systems should have signs:

RESIDENTIAL
- family names on each household
- compost piles by date
- outbuildings

COMMUNITY
- communication center
- health clinic
- supply storage
- food storage
- water storage
- farming equipment storage
- garden nursery / seed depot

8:b:ii) MATERIALS FOR OUTDOOR SIGN MAKING

The main issues with making signage for outdoor structures are materials and protection from the elements. Generally, signs will simply need to be re-painted regularly, but limited resources require the materials to be reused scrap.

Whenever possible, signs should be painted directly on the structure (house, building, containers, etc). Otherwise, flat wood boards or metal surfaces that are not usable for more important work can be made into signs. Paint itself is to be used from every possible resource from defunct paint stores, hardware shops and art supply stores, plus personal stashes of half-empty cans. If unavailable, letters can be formed from found materials or scrap wood and metal. Least durable but still an option is to use concentrated tinctures from plant materials, such as red beets. In these cases, signs must be painted on light-coloured wood surfaces or paper, and sealed in with a rubbing of oil and/or beeswax.

8:b:iii) WRITING INSTRUMENTS

Communication includes note and letter writing, as well as all local government paperwork and education. Our short supply of pencils, pens, etc, will soon run out and the most practical replacement is to rely on existing fountain pens, to be refilled with inks made from natural available materials.

BERRY INK
Use 1/2 cup fresh berries; push them through a strainer to remove pulp; discard pulp. To the juice, add 1/2 teaspoon of vinegar (to hold color) and 1/2 teaspoon salt (as a preservative) and mix well. Use small glass jars with lids to contain.

WALNUT INK
Crush the shells of 12 walnuts by putting them in a sock and hammering them lightly. Pour the shells into a saucepan and cover them with water, then let them simmer for 30 minutes. After that, remove them from heat and let them soak overnight. Strain, and add 1/4 teaspoon of vinegar to help preserve the color. Store in small glass jars with lids.

8:b:iii) MAKING PAPER

Several artists and artisans in the city will be versed in paper making. They should collectivize and produce paper in large quantities, using the following available materials instead of wood pulp:

- old paper
- old fabrics and clothing
- dried vegetables including arugula, carrot greens, dandelion greens, mint, wheat straw, yucca, weeds
- grass
- hemp
- cotton

Generally the paper making process is as follows:

1) build a wooden frame the size of the paper, with a mesh screen as the base
2) grind the dry plant material in water, soda ash or washing soda for one to two days, then strain and mash with a mortar and pestle until homogenized into a paste
3) place in a container large enough to hold the screen, and add water, dissolving the pulp evenly
4) immerse the frame into the container and slowly remove the frame, making sure the pulp is evenly distributed
5) allow the water to drain (can press out excess with a sponge) and carefully remove the paper.
6) allow to dry in fresh air.

-- END OF HOW-TO GUIDE --

Community Resources for Toronto, Canada

2007-08-13T07:48:00.000-04:00

Toronto is full of educated people with useful skills and abilities that will help transition the city’s people into a self-sustaining, symbiotic living existence. This section will outline the kinds of skills needed in each community or neighbourhood to ensure a maximum amount of food produced, water collected and purified, and level of health maintained.

LIST OF SKILLED SPECIALISTS NEEDED IN COMMUNITIES

Each neighbourhood would do well having residents with the following specialties:

MEDICAL
- first aid
- nurse
- herbalist
- homeopath
- chiropractor
- massage therapist
- acupuncturist
- midwife
- chemist
- pharmacist
- doctor

EDUCATIONAL
- teacher for various grade levels
- teaching assistant for each teacher
- child care specialist
- translators for various languages

SPIRITUAL & EMOTIONAL
- priests, monks, ministers of all faiths
- psychotherapist
- hypnotherapist

MECHANICAL
- engineer
- mechanic
- water systems expert
- plumber
- architect
- bicycle repair and maintenance specialist
- carpenter
- electrician
- contractor
- construction workers

AGRICULTURAL
- organic farmer
- organic gardener
- permaculture specialist
- biointensive agricultural specialist
- botanist
- poisons specialist
- labourers
- baker

HUSBANDRY
- veterinarian
- cattle rancher
- various livestock specialists (goats, chickens, rabbits, etc)
- butcher
- cheesemaker

If communities lack residents with useful assets, then neighbourhoods should source and contact groups or individuals, to have access to them when needed. Lists of specialists should be posted at all communication centers.

As well, neighbourhoods should appoint runners (to send messages to messengers) and strongbodies to assist in heavy lifting and arduous physical labour.

LIBRARIES
Libraries may be one of the most valuable resources to Torontonians. They contain a multitude of books with information, instructions, advice and guidelines for everything needed to retrofit this city for citizens to survive and thrive. Everyone should be familiar with their nearest libraries and take full advantage of them to stockpile knowledge.

REFERENCES

2007-08-12T19:49:00.002-04:00

.
~ ~ ~ BOOKS ~ ~ ~

REFERENCE BOOKS
Chelsea Green, Publishers of Sustainable Living Books
How To Grow More Vegetables by John Jeavons
Urban Agriculture Notes by City Farmer
Backyard Livestock by Steven Thomas
The Post-Petroleum Survival Guide and Cookbook by Albert K. Bates
The Encyclopedia of Country Living by Carla Emery
Back to Basics: How to Learn and Enjoy Traditional American Skills
When Technology Fails by Matthew Stein
Preserving Food Without Canning or Freezing

PHILOSOPHY IN ACTION
Escaping the Matrix by Richard Moore
The One Straw Revolution by Masanobu Fukuoka
The Great Turning by David Korten
Power Down by Richard Heinberg

MAGAZINES
Yes! Magazine
Permaculture Activist

~ ~ ~ ORGANIZATIONS ~ ~ ~

The P.I.N.E. Project
The Transition Movement (Transition Towns, Transition Culture)

~ ~ ~ WEBSITES ~ ~ ~

PEAK OIL
Hubbert's Peak of Oil Production
Life After the Oil Crash
Health & Energy: Oil Crisis
PeakOil.Org
Wolf At The Door
Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas (ASPO)
World Without Oil

VISIONS OF HOPE
Our Pueblo
Carolyn Baker: Speaking Truth to Power
Ecotopia
Sustainable.Org
Element Village
Millison Ecological Home
The Community Solution to Peak Oil
The Foundation for Deep Ecology
Global Ecovillage Network
100 Mile Diet
Daryl Hannah on Being Off-Grid
Off-Grid.Net
ReLocalize.Net
Masanobu Fukuoka
Mindfully.Org
Small Planet Institute
Living Local (Canada)

SPECIFICS
Post Peak Living
Journey To Forever library
Aprovecho Research Center
Solar Cooking Plans
Cooking Without Carbon
Backwoods Recipes
Food Safety Q&A
Dry-Curing Food
Oilseed Processing
Making an Oil Press
Petroleum Resource Consumption
Seed Savers

ONLINE VIDEOS
Peak Moment Television
Build a Rocket Stove
Michael Rupert: Collapse (movie trailer)